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OUTLINES 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



BY 

GEOEGE W. FITCH. 



rLLTTSTRATED BY 



3n 3h^ n)i ^umnQM (Bn^xMwp 



" Let me once understand the real geography of a country, — its organic structure, if I 
may so call It ; the form of its skeleton, — that is, of its hills ; the magnitude and course of 
its veins and arteries,— that is, of its streams and rivers ; let me conceive of it as a whole, 
made up of connected parts ; and then the position of man's dwellings, viewed in refer- 
ence to these parts, becomes at once easily remembered, and lively and intelligible besides." 

Dk. Aknold. 



EIGHTH LAEGE EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 
J. H. COLTOlSr AISTD COMPANY, 

172 WILLIAM STEEET. 
SHELDON, BLAKEMAN AND COMPANY, 

115 NASSAU STREET. 

1856. 



G-555 



ENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE TEAR 1855, BY 

J. H. COLTON & CO. AND G. W. FITOH, 

IN THE clerk's OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF THE UNITED STATES FOR 
THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK. 



By Transter from 
U.S.Navai Academy 

AuM. 26 1S32 



DAVIE8 AND K0BERT8, GEOBUE KtTSSELL & CO., 

ELECXKOTYPEKS. PEINTEES. 



PREFACE. 



The following pages have been prepared vrith. a view of supplying the 
"want of a treatise on Physical Geography, adapted to the use of Schools 
and Academies. It is rather a remarkable fact, that among the multitude 
and variety of school-books prepared for the schools in the United States, 
there is not one devoted exclusively to this science. The consequence is, 
that Physical Geography, as a separate study, is very rarely taught in 
our schools, and that all, or most of the knowledge acquired respecting 
it, is what is iacidently obtaiaed in pursuing other kindred studies. 

The Author has aimed to present none but well- authenticated facts, and ac- 
cordingly he has consulted the latest and most reliable authorities. Among 
the works from which valuable information has been obtained are " Eyelid's 
Principles of Geology," "Milner's Gallery of Nature," " Mil- 
ner's Geography," " Kemtz's Meteorology," " Hughes' Outliives 
OF Geography," and " Somerville's Physical Geography." In this 
connection the Author would acknowledge his great obligation to Lieut. 
M, F. INIaury, Superititendent of the National Observatory, Washington, for 
very valuable information on the recent deep-sea soundrags which he has 
caused to be made in the Atlantic Ocean. From Maury's " Sailing Di- 
rections" many interesting facts have been gleaned respecting the winds 
and currents of the ocean, trade routes, etc. To A. D, Bache, Superin- 
tendent of the United States Coast Survey, the Author is indebted for va- 
rious Eeports of the operations of that department, and for a Tide Table of 
the United States which was specially prepared for this book. 

The maps were compiled with the greatest care by Mr. George W, Colton, 
the aim being to exhibit the most remarkable and interesting features of 
Physical Geography, so far as they are capable of being represented to the 
eye. 



PREFACE. 

It is proper to observe that, in the preparation of this treatise, no attempt 
at originality was made, but simply an effort to digest and arrange the 
more important facts in an intelligible style for learners. In many in- 
stances the Author has employed the phraseology of other writers, without 
always defacing the pages with quotation marks and references. Length- 
ened extracts, and those containing peculiar views of an author, are credited 
to their proper sources. 

The Author can not refrain from expressing the hope that the book will 
meet the approbation of teachers, and excite in the minds of learners a 
de^re for further attainments in this interestiag department of science. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Definition of Physical Geography— how divided— the First Part— the Second Part— the 
Third Part— the Fourth Part Pages 1-8 

PART I. 

THE LAND. 

LESSON I. — ^Extent and Distribution of the Land 4-5 

LESSON II. — Continents: Eastern continent — its extreme limits. North America: its 
length and breadth — area — coast-line — indentations. South America: its dimensions. 
6-7 

LESSON III. — Continents (contimied) : Eastern continent : its length and breadth — area. 
Europe: its dimensions— its peninsular character. Asia: its dimensions. Africa: its 
dimensions. Table of the area of the five grand divisions, their extent of coast-line, 
etc. General remarks on the continents 7-9 

LESSON IV.— Islands : Australia — table of the area of some of the largest islands, and 
their comparative size — Eockall — chains of islands or continental islands — oceanic isl- 
ands — archipelagoes — single islands, St. Helena, Ascension Islands — volcanic islands — 
examples of islands suddenly formed by volcanic action, Graham Island 10-12 

LESSON Y. — Coeal Islands : Great extent of coralline structures — Great Barrier Eeef— 
description of coral animals and their operations — an atoll— lagoons— encircling-reefs — 
barrier-reefs — action of the waves on the Great Barrier Eeef— Florida. Eeef— Florida 
Keys— coral fringes — observations on coral islands by Capt. Basil Hall 13-17 

LESSON VI.— Mountains : Insulated mountains— usual arrangement of mountains- 
mountain systems of the two continents — secondary ranges — highest known mountains 
on the globe— loftiest summits in the other four grand divisions — table of heights above 
the sea of some remarkable inhabited sites— list of some remarkable heights which have 
been reached 18-21 

LESSON VII. — The Mountain Systems of the Westeen Continent : JVorth American 
3Iou7itains. — The Eocky Mountains, the highest summits— the Mountains of the West 
Coast — the Apalachian or Allegany ranges. Green Mountains, White Mountains, Adi- 
rondack Mountains, Catskill Mountains — highest summits in the Apalachian range — 
Ozark Mountains — the mountains in Mexico — South American Moimtai^is. — The Andes 
— how divided — peculiarities of each division. The mountains of Guiana — of Brazil. 
22-26 

LESSON VIII.— Mountain Systems of the Easteen CoNTmEiJ^TS : European Mount- 
ains.— "Yhe Balkan Mountains — the Alps, celebrated passes— the Appenines— the Car- 
pathian Mountains— the Mountains of the Spanish peninsula— the Scandinavian Mount- 



Vi CONTENTS. 

ains— the Ural Mountains. Asiatic Mountains.— The Himalaya Mountains— the Altai 
Mountains — the Hindoo-Koosh — the Mountains of Armenia — the chain of Mount Taurus. 
African Mountains. — Alias Mountains— the Mountains of Abyssinia— mountains of the 
•western coast— of the eastern coast— of South Africa Pages 26-33 

LESSON IX.— Upland Plains oe Table-Lands : Table-lands of North America— pla- 
teau of Chihuahua— table-lands of South America — the most extensive table-land of Eu- 
rope — table-lands of Asia — elevation of the plain of Tibet — table-lands of Africa. , 34-36 

LESSON X.— Lowland Plains : The great central plain of North America — prairies — 
the plain or lowland of the Atlantic coast — the great central plain of South America — 
llanos— selvas— pampas 36-40 

LESSON XI.— Glaciers : Eegions of glaciers— their origin— movements of glaciers— ap- 
pearance of glaciers— their uses 40-43 

LESSON XII.— Snow Mountains and Avalanches :' Drift, sliding, creeping, and ice 
avalanches— destructive efifects of avalanches 43-45 

LESSON XIII.— Volcanoes : Active, intermittent, or extinct volcanoes— number and dis- 
tribution of volcanoes 45-47 

. LESSON XIV.— YoLCANic Kegions : The Volcanic Regions of the Andes. — Of North 
America. Volcanoes of Mexico — of the West India Islands. Volcanic Region from 
the Aleutian Isles to the Moluccas and Isles of Sunda. Volcanic Regions of the Medi- 
terranean 47-52 

LESSON XV. — Vesuvius : Description of its crater — Herculaneum and Pompeii. Etna 
— us eruption in 1669. Volcanoes of /ceZcmcZ- eruption of Skaptar Jokul in 17S3. 
srs 52-57 



LESSON XVI.— Earthquakes : Proof that earthquakes and volcanoes have a similar or- 
igin—intensity of earthquakes— movements of the earth they produce— their duration, 
instances — their frequency — their effects in elevating and depressing the land, instances 
— clefts and fissures— fatal effects of earthquakes 57-59 



PART n. 

THE WATERS. 

LESSON I.— Chemical Composition of Water : The fresh waters— the salt water— salts 
contained in sea-water — salt-water lakes — the benevolence of the Deity as manifested in 
the wide diffusion of water over the globe 60-62 

LESSON II.— Mineral Springs: Acidulous waters — chalybeate springs — sulphurous 
springs — saline springs, the salt springs at Salina and Syracuse — mmeral springs of the 
United States 63-65 

LESSON III. — Eivees: Their sources — basins — area of the principal river basins — course 
of rivers— table of river windings 65-67 

LESSON IV. — KivERS {continued) : 'lUe fall oi rivers— cataracts— the Falls of Niagara — 
of St. Anthony— other noted falls in America— principal waterfalls of the eastern con- 
tinent 68-71 

LESSON V. — EivERS {continued) : The termination of rivers — deltas — the delta of the 
Mississippi, how produced— sedimentary matter of the Ganges — oceanic rivers — conti- 
nental rivers — causes which determine the magnitude of rivers — proportional quantity 
of water discharged by some of the principal rivers— inundations of rivers— historic asso- 
ciations of rivers 71-76 



CONTENT So Vn 

LESSON VI.— The Eivee Systems of the "Westeen Continent : North American EiV' 
6rs.— Divisions of the continent with reference to its drainage— the Mississippi— the Mis- 
souri — the Ohio— the St. Lawrence — other streams draining the Atlantic slope— rivers 
draining the region west of the Eocky Mountains— rivers draining the northern slope — 
other streams. = ,.... Pages 76-79 

LESSON VII.— EivER Systems of the Western Continent {continued) : South Amer- 
ican Elvers. — The Orinoco— the Amazon — the Eio de la Plata 80-81 

LESSON VIII.— ErvER Systems of the Eastern Continent : The two principal river 
systems of Europe— the Volga — Danube — Ehine — other European rivers 82-84 

LESSON IX.— EivER Systems of the Eastern Continent {continued) : The two princi- 
pal classes of Asiatic rivers— the Obi — Yenesei — ^I^ena — Ganges— the Indus — other Asiatic 
rivers— drainage by continental rivers. African Eivers.—T:he Nile— the Niger— other 
African rivers S4-8S 

LESSON X.— Lakes : Distribution of fresh-water lakes— salt-water lakes— physical dif- 
ference of lakes — lakes which have no outlet, and do not receive any running water — 
lakes which receive water, but have no apparent outlet — lakes which receive no streams, 
but give birth to some — lakes which both receive and discharge water— elevations of 
lakes o .,... 8&-90 

LESSON XI.— Lakes {continued) : North American Lakes. — ^Lake Superior — Huron — 
Michigan— Ontario — other North American Lakes. South American Lakes.— "Lake Titi- 
caca 90-93 

LESSON XII. — Lakes {continued) : European Lakes. — Tables of the dimensions of the 
principal European lakes, their elevations, etc. Asiatic Lakes. African Lakes . . 93-95 

LESSON XIII.— The Ocean : Partial oceans and their branches— the Arctic Ocean — 
floating masses of ice— sheet ice — the Grinnell Expedition— icebergs — ^point of the great- 
est cold — the Atlantic Ocean — " Banks of Fucus"— the Pacific Ocean — the Indian Ocean 
—the Antarctic Ocean— discoveries of "Wilkes and Eoss 96-100 

LESSON XIV. — The Ocean {continued) : Temperature— color — depth— deep-sea sound- 
ings 100-101 

LESSON XV. — The Ocean {continued) : Waves — tides— theory of tides explained — tide 
table for the coast of the United States 105-109 

LESSON XVI. — The Ocean {continued) : Currents— causes of the oceanic currents— arc- 
tic currentr— equatorial current— Mexican Gulf Stream 110-115 



PART in. 

THE ATMOSPHEEE, 
LESSON I.— CoMPOBinON of Air : Properties of oxygen gas 116-llT 

LESSON II. — Properties op the Atmosphere: Transparency— fluidity — weight— how 
indicated— the use that is made of barometers to ascertain the height of mountains — 
elasticity of the atmosphere — eflPect of rarefied air on the human body. 118-121 

LESSON III. — Winds: How caused — uses— how their direction is indicated — the direc- 
tion of the wind in the upper regions often the reverse of what it is in the lower — velo- 
city of winds. VariaUe Winds. — ^Table of the relative frequency of winds in different 
countries— cold winds — the bora, mistral, vent de bise, gallego— hot winds — simoon — 
harmattan— sirocco — saJano 121-129 

LESSON IV.— Permanent Winds: The trade-winds— how explained— important uses of 
trade-winds 130-135 



Vm CONTENTS. 

LESSON V. — Pekiodic-al Wlxps : Monsoons— Etesian winds— land and sea hrcezes— llio 
zone of calma ,...., 1 35-139 

LESSON YI.— IIuKKicANES : Tlie three hurricane regions 139 140 

LESSON VIL-^MoiSTtJKB : When least in the atmosphere — when greatest — mists and 
fogs.. , 140-143 

LESSON VIII. — Clouds : Cirrus or curlcloud— cumulus or stackencloud— stratus or fall- 
cloud — composite forms — height of clouds 143-146 

LESSON IX. — Eain : Extraordinary showers — unequal distribution of rain — table showing 
the diminution of rain from the equator to the poles — increase in the annual number of the 
rainy days as we go from the equator explained — fall of rain the greatest near the coasts 
— and in mountainous districts — rainless regions — rainy seasons in the tropics . . 147-149 

LESSON X. — Snow and Hail : Forms of snow crystals — limits of snow at the level of 
the sea— uses of snow— hail, how formed 150-153 

LESSON XL — Climate : Meaning of the term — by what causes determined — tJie latitude 
of a country — elevation ahove the level of the sea — line of perpetual snow — climates of 
mountainous regions in the torrid zone — height above the sea of individual classes of 
vegetation— vegetable regions on Mount Etna — Teneriflfe 153-15T 

LESSON XII. — Climate {continued) : The nea?mess to, or remoteness of a country from 
the sea — why America has a colder climate than corresponding latitudes in the eastern 
hemisphere — the slope of a country, or the aspect it presents to the sun^s course — how 
observed in the Alps — the position and direction of mountain chains — the nature of 
the soil — the cultivation and improvement of a country^prevalent winds — anmial 
quantity of rain 158- 162 

LESSON XIII.— Climate (continued) : When the greatest cold occurs— table of the cli- 
mates of different places — isothermal lines — hot regions — warm regions — temperate re- 
gions—cold regions— frozen regions 162-166 



PART IV. 

ORGANIC EXISTENCE. 

LESSON L — Plants: Organic existence defined— wide distribution of plants — flight, heat, 
and moisture as affecting plants — number of species known — divisions of the vegetable 
kingdom — ages of trees 16S-1I1 

LESSON II. — DisTKiBUTiON OP Plants : Indigenous and exotic plants — different regions 
inhabited by distinct species of plants — botanical provinces— diffusion of plants . . 171-175 

LESSON III. — Food Plants : What plants man has selected for his food — arborescent 
food-plants — the food plants which prevail in the Old World — those which have their 
origin in the New World — barley, rye, oats — wheat, buckwheat — maize or Indian com, 
j-jee — olive, date-palm — banana — cocoa-nut palm — bread-fruit tree — potato — cassava — 
arrow root — sugar-cane — coffee — tea — the vine — fig— the cocoa or chocolate tree. 1T5-180 

LESSON lY. — Animals : Number of species — four grand divisions — vertebrated animals 
how subdivided — mammalia — birds— reptiles — molluscous animals — articulated ani- 
mals—radiated animals 1S1-1S2 

LESSON Y.— DiSTpaBijTiON of Animals : Diversity in the organizations of animals— pro- 
fusion of animal life in the torrid zone— insects of the torrid zone— reptiles, birds, and 
mammiferous quadrupeds of the torrid zone— animal tribes of the temperate and cold 
regions— adaptation of animals to different climates 182-185 



CONTENTS. IX 

LESSON VI.— Zoological Eegions: DifiFerent regions inhabited by distinct species of 
animals, as well as plants — number of zoological regions — European region — African 
region— region of Soutliern Africa— of Madagascar — of India— of ttie Indian Arcliipel- 
ago — of New Guinea — of Australia — of North America — of South America 181-1S8 

LESSON YII. — Max: Number of the human race — their wide diflfusion — man's capability 
of accommodating himself to a great diversity of circumstances 1SS-1S9 

LESSON VIII. — Eaces of Mex : All mankind the offspring of common parents — classi- 
fications of mankind with reference to the color of the hair — with reference to the shape 
of the skull — the Caucasian race — the Mongolian race — the Ethiopic race — the American 
race— the Malay race 190-195 



APPENDIX. 

CHIEF PRODUCTIONS OF THE EAETH AND THE COUNTRIES "WHEEE 

THEY AEE PRODUCED 197-199 

EXPORTS OF COUNTRIES 199-201 

TRADE ROUTES . 201-204 

METALLIC PRODUCTIONS 204-211. 

LIST OF THE PEINCIPAL MOUNTAINS, WITH THEIE ELEVATIONS. 212-21T 

LIST OP THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS, WITH THEIR CHIEF TRIBUTA- 
RIES 218-221 

TABLE OP TEMPERATURE 222-225 



LIST OF MAPS 



I. The World, illustrating the Principal Features of the Land 6 

Note— For the sake of greater clearness, the Co-tidal Lines are 
shown on this map rather than on the next, where 
the water portion is devoted to an illustration of the 
Oceanic Currents. 

n. " illustrating the Divisions and Movements of the Waters 
oftheGlohe 62 

m. " illustrating the Geographical Distribution of some of the 
Principal Phenomena of Meteorology 122 

rV". " showing the Geographical Distribution and Limits of 
Cultivation of some of the Principal Plants useful to 
Mankind 172 

y. " showing the Geographical Distribution and Range of 
some of the Principal Members of the Animal King- 
dom 182 

YI. illustrating the Productive Industry of various Countries, 
and exhibiting the Principal localities of Commerce 
and Navigation, Trade Routes, etc 196 



NTRODUGTION. 



I'M 



HYSICAL Geography is a 
description of the general 
features of the earth's sur- 
face, the organized beings placed 
upon it, and the operations of the 
atmospheie by which it is uni- 
versally sunounded. It relates 
to the earth as it exists in a state 
of natuie, without regard to po- 
litical or aibitrary divisions, or 
to any of those changes or iin- 
piovements m the world which 
have been effected by man. 

2. It may be divided into four parts, relating respectively to the 
following subjects : 1. The Land, or solid portion of the earth's 




\f« 



Questions.— \. What is Physical Geography? To what does it relate' 
many parts may it be divided ? Name the subjects to which they relate. 

1 



2. Into how 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

surface ; 2. The Water, or liquid portion ; 3. The operations 
of the Atmosphere ; 4. Animal and Vegetable life. 

3. The First Part describes the extent and distribution of the 
land ; the arrangement of the continental masses and islands ; 
the magnitude and direction of the great mountain systems ; and 
the situation and extent of the vast plains, upland and lowland, 
which constitute the most productive portions of the earth's sur- 
face. This part also relates to volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., in 
their relation to the character and aspect of the land portion of 
the earth. 

4. The Second Part relates to the waters of the globe, whether 
salt or fresh ; the origin, course, fall, and termination of rivers ; 
the distribution and magnitude of lakes ; and the extent, depth, 
tidal and other movements of the oceanic waters. 

5. The Third Part treats of the operations of the atmosphere 
which surrounds our globe. It describes the laws which set the 
winds in motion, and the causes which influence their direction 
and velocity ; it explains the phenomena of moisture, dew, rain, 
snow, and hail, and the various causes which are concerned in 
the regulation of climate. 

6. The Fourth Part relates to organic existence, or the ani- 
mals and plants distributed over the globe. It describes the 
great natural divisions of plants, the agencies which contribute 
to their diffusion, the food plants, and the regions where they are 
produced. It presents the orders of the animal kingdom, shows 
its diversity of organization, and its diffusion, and explains the 
zoological character of the different portions of the world. 

7. The facts of Physical Geography are of a more permanent character 
than those which relate to the civil or political affairs of mankind. The, 
boundaries of nations are frequently changed, either by conquests or treat- 
ies ; new countries become peopled, and new states and territories organ- 
ized ; populous cities spring suddenly into existence ; and the arts of civili- 
zation are rapidly carried to distant quarters of the earth. The varying 
condition of countries with respect to population, internal improvements, 
boundary lines, etc., is such as to require a constant correction of maps and 
statistical works, in order to make them correct exponents of political affairs. 

QxiestionK.—Z. What does the first part describe ? To what does it also relate ? 4. To 
what does the second part relate ? 5. Of what does the third part treat ? What does it de- 
scribe ? 6. To what does the fourth part relate ? What does it describe ? 7. What is said 
of the facts of Physical Geography ? Illustrate. Varying condition of countries ? 



INTKODUCTION. 3 

8. Such fluctuations do not belong to the science of Physical Geography. 
The grand and majestic features which God has impressed on the face of 
our globe — its continents and oceans — its mountains, valleys, rivers, and 
lakes, - remain now, with all their prominent characteristics, very nearly 
the same as they have existed for centuries past. 

9. It is true that natural agencies are at work, changing to a limited ex- 
tent the face of nature. Volcanic action has rent the crust of the earth in 
numerous places, raising some portions and depressing others ; some rivers 
have worked new channels, and formed extensive deltas at their mouths ; 
and. as in Holland, vast areas of land have been rescued from the ocean by 
embankments and artificial modes of drainage. These and other alterations, 
considerable as they may appear, are comparatively unimportant as regards 
the world at large, and scarcely serve to qualify the remark, that the phys- 
ical aspect of the earth has not greatly changed in modern times. 

10. From what is here observed it must not be inferred that the earth 
has not been the scene of mighty convulsions. An examination of its sur- 
face shows that at very early periods most important changes successively 
took place. To explain those changes, and the causes which have led to the 
present state or condition of the earth, belongs properly to the science of 
Geology. 

11. Physical Geography explains many interesting facts of Civil Geog- 
raphy. It shows where nature has provided for the growth of cities, the 
peopling of states, the construction of railroads, canals, and other works of 
internal improvement ; it points out what courses on the ocean the mariner 
must pursue in order to avail himself of its favoring winds and currents ; 
and it explains what pursuits are best adapted to the people of different 
countries. The influence of mountains, rivers, seas, climate, and natural 
productions on the industry of people and the progress of nations is so great, 
that it is scarcely possible for one to possess a thorough knowledge of gen- 
eral geography, without first understanding those facts which Physical 
Geography describes. 

Questions. — 8. Do such fluctuations belong to the science ef Physical Geography? 9 
How :ire certain changes of the earth's sur'ai^e produced? AVhnt is observed of these al- 
terations? 10. "What does an examination of the earth's surface show ? "What belongs to 
the science of Geology ? 11. "Why is a kuowledge of Physical Geography important? 



PART I. 

THE LAND. 




I 



LESSON I. 

EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION. 

HE surface of the earth con- 
sists of unequal portions of land 
and water. It has been esti- 
mated to contain about 196,500,- 
I 000 English square miles. Of 
[this area, the dry land is sup- 
f posed to occupy about 51,000,- 
000 of square miles. Hence it 
will be seen the fluid portion 
predominates over the solid in 
the ratio of about 285 to 100. 
The extent of each division, however, can not be exactly ascer- 
tained, owing to the north and south polar regions not having 
been fully explored. 

13. There is but little regularity in the arrangement of the 
land upon the globe. In some parts the coast is indented by 
deep bays and gidfs, in others the land projects into the ocean 
in capes and promontories, while the islands are scatteied 
throughout the ocean, either singly or in irregular groups. 

14. The distribution of the land is very unequal, — ^by far the 
greater portion being in the northern hemisphere. It has been 
calculated that there is about three times as much land north of 
the equator as south of it, and about two and a half times as 
much in the eastern as in the western hemisphere. 

Questions. — 12. Of what does the surface of the earth consist ? How many square miles 
does it contain? Square miles of the land? In what proportion does the fluid portion 
predominate over the solid ? Why can not the extent of each division be exactly ascer- 
tained ? 13. What is said of the arrangement of the land ? Illustrate. 14. What is said 
of the distribution of the land ? Which hemisphere contains the greater portion, the north- 
ern or southern ? How much more land is there in the northern than in the southern hem ■ 
isphcre? In the eastern than in the western ? 



EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND. 



Its distribution through the diflerent zones is as follows : 

Northern HEiiiepnEEE. Sq. Miles. SouTiiiii>f Hemisphere. Sq. Miles. 



Arctic Zone 2,792,000 

Temperate Zone 24,488,000 

Torrid Zone 9,949,000 



Total 37,229,000 



Antarctic Zone Unknown. 

Temperate Zone 3,306,000 

Torrid Zone 10,466,000 



Total 13,771,000 




Joutliern Heraispber 



Northern Hemisplaere. 



15. The unequal distribution of the land may be most strik- 
ingly seen from an inspection of a map of the hemispheres, 
projected upon the plain of the horizon of London. The hemi- 
sphere, in which that city occupies the center, inchides nearly all 
the land on the globe, while the other is almost covered with 
water. One may therefore be termed the continental or land 
hemisphere, and the other the oceanic or water hemisphere 




"Water Hemisphere. 



Land Hemisphere. 



Questions.— ].5. Ilnw may the unequal distribution of the land be most striiiingly seen ' 
Which hemisphere include^ nearly all the land ? How termed ? 



O CONTINENTS. 

LESSON IL 

CONTINENTS. 

16. There are two continents, — the Eastern, which includes 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the Western Continent, or New 
World, which includes North and South America. The Eastern 
Continent is styled the Old World, from its being the only one 
known to* Europeans previously to the close of the fifteenth 
century. The terms eastern and western refer to the meridian 
of the Ferro Isles, from which longitude was formerly reckoned. 

17. The Western Continent is about 8,700 miles in length 
from north to south. The greatest breadth of the continent is 
about 3,250 miles, and its least breadth, in the center, across the 
the Isthmus of Panama, about 30 miles. 

18. North America is the northern portion of the Western 
Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is about 
5,600 miles, and its greatest breadth about 3,100 miles. It con- 
tains an area of about 8,600,000 square miles. The main body 
of the continent may be included within a triangle, whose base 
extends along the northern shores and whose .vertical angle is in 
Mexico. 

19. The eastern side of North America is penetrated by 
branches of the ocean, and consequently presents several penin- 
sulas, and the western projects the long peninsula of California. 
These indented shores, which give to the continent a coast-line 
of 24,500 miles, or 1 mile to every 350 square miles of surface, 
are, with numerous rivers and lakes, the means by which civili- 
zation and commerce have been extended, and are now rapidly 
extending into the interior. 

20. Among the numerous indentations of the Atlantic coast 
south of Labrador, are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, 

Quest/ions. — 16. How many continents are there, and what countries do they respectively 
include? Why is the Eastern Continent styled the Old World? To what do the lerma 
Eastern and Western refer? 17. Length of the Western Continent? Greatest breadth? 
Least breadth? 18. Length and breadth of North America? Area? General form of 
the continent? 19. What is the character of the coast-line? Extent of coast-line? 20. 
Principal indentations of the Atlantic coast south of Labrador ? 



'Dte Uciht <^^lirTe^L^l\.e.&cros■sing the. water a3~e,Q,o-\iAzX\xa&%. 
and. Lhe Romcurv WwmeircLls atlached., represent tfieJTour 
ofhigh -iv cuter, az Mew ScFuUMo on along their < 



K 



\ 







Sc a in, the .7e>>.-.9 Office of the Vistricc Court erf the U=n.it:aLSU 



•—Jw.Smj&iei-n Bijrtricb: 



C O N T I N E N T S , 7 

Passamaquoddy Bay, Penobscot Bay, Massachusetts Bay, Cape 
Cod Bay, Buzzards Bay, Narragansett Bay, New York Bay, 
Raritan Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Albemarle Sound, 
Pamlico Sound, Gulf of Mexico, Bay of Honduras, etc. 

21. South America is the smaller of the two divisions of the 
Western Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is 
about 4,600 miles, and its greatest breath from east to west about 
3,000 miles ; its area is about 6,420,000 square miles. Its form 
is triangular. Its unbroken coast-line of 14,500 miles in extent, 
gives only a mile of sea-coast for every 420 square miles of sur- 
face, and presents few bays or even harbors. 

22. The slow progress of civilization in South America has been attributed 
in a great measure to the want of bays and gulfs extending inland and af- 
fording maritime advantages to the interior regions. This disadvantage of 
unbroken coast-line is partly counterbalanced by the vast navigable streams 
of the Orinoco, Amazon, La Plata, and their branches. 



LESSON III. 

CONTINENTS — [continued). 

23. The Eastern Continent is the largest mass of land upon 
the globe. It extends for about 10,000 miles from east to west, 
and about 8,000 from north to south. It contains an area of 
about 33,000,000 of square miles, or about two and a fourth times 
as many as the Western Continent. 

24. Europe is the smallest of the five grand divisions. Its 
greatest length from Cape St. Vincent, in the southwest, to the 
Gulf of Kara, in the northeast, is about 3,500 miles ; its great- 
est breadth, from North Cape to Cape Matapan, is about 2,400 
miles. The area of its surface, including the islands, amounts to 
about 3,500,000 square miles. 

25. Europe is indented by numerous bays and seas on its 
western and southern sides, in consequence of which the coast- 

Questions. — 21. What is said of South America? Greatest length ? Breadth? Area? 
Form ? Extent of coast-line ? 22. Slow progress of civilization in South America ? What 
compensation is there for its unbroken coast-line ? 23. What is said of the Eastern Con- 
tinent? Its length and breadth? Area? 24. What is the comparative size of Europe? 
Its length and breadth ? Area ? 25. "What is said of its coast indentation ? Extent of sea- 
coast ? What is said of its peninsular character ? What large peninsulas does it embrace ? 



8 CONTINENTS. 

line is of great extent, and in proportion larger than that of any 
other of the grand divisions. Its line of shores extends 17,000 
miles ; it therefore, enjoys a mile of coast-line for every 156 square 
miles of surface, thus possessing great facilities for commercial 
enterprise. Europe is essentially the region of peninsular for- 
mations : it embraces the Scandinavian Peninsula (Norway and 
Sweden) ; the Peninsula of Denmark ; the Peninsula of Spain and 
Portugal; and the Peninsulas of Italy and Greece. 

26. Asia is the largest of the grand divisions of the earth. 
Its greatest length from east to west is about 5,600 miles, and 
its greatest breadth from north to south about 5,300 miles. It 
contains an area of about 17,500,000 square miles, or consid- 
erably more than is contained in both North and South America. 
It has a coast-line of 30,800 miles, and excluding the Arctic 
Ocean, which is scarcely navigable, there will be only 1 mile of 
sea-coast for every 459 miles of surface. 

27. Africa, like South America, is a vast peninsula, being en- 
tirely surrounded by the waters of the ocean, except at the 
Isthmus of Suez, by which it is connected to Asia. Its greatest 
length from north to south is about 5,600 miles, and its greatest 
breadth from east to west about 4,700 miles. Its area is about 
11,300,000 square miles. In consequence of its peculiar form, 
with no considerable peninsulas or sea indentations, its coast-line 
is only 14,000 miles, or only 1 mile of sea-coast for every 623 
square miles of surface. On this account it is the most inacces^ 
sible, least civilized, and least known to civilized nations. 

28. The following table exhibits the superficial extent of each continent 
in English square miles, together with the length of coast-line possessed 
by each (in English miles), and the proportion which the latter of these 
measures bears to the former : 





Surface. 


Coast-line. 


Square Miles 
of Surface for 1 
Mile of Coast 


North America 


8,600,000 

6,420,000 

3,500,000 

17,500,000 

11,300,000 


24,500 • 

14,500 

17,000 

30,800 

14,000 


350 
420 
156 
459 
623 


South America 


Europe 


Asia 


Africa 



^?ie5<i07is.— 26. Comparative extent of Asia? Its lengflh and breadth? Area? Coast- 
line ? 27. What is said of Africa ? Its length and breadth ? Area? Extent of coast-line? 



C ( ) X 'I I N K A"! S . V 

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CONTINENTS. 

29. If we examine the map of the world, we may notice several 
features of similarity between the two continents. (1.) Each 
expands into broad extensive flats toward the north, while toward 
the south they narrow down to points, offering a rude resem- 
blance to an inverted pyramid. 

30. (2.) Both attain their greatest breadth about the parallel 
of 50° N., and are cut off by the ocean at about latitude 70°. 

31. (3.) Each has a large portion of its area nearly detached ; 
South America being joined to North America by the Isthmus of 
Panama, about 30 miles broad, and Africa being appended to 
Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, about 75 miles broad. 

32. (4.) The peninsulas of both continents follow a southerly 
direction — as Scandinavia (embracing Sweden and Norway), 
Spain, Italy, Greece, Africa, Arabia, India, Malacca, Cambodia, 
Corea, and Kamtchatka in the one, and South America, Cali- 
fornia, Florida, and Alaska in the other. There are two im- 
portant exceptions to this rule — the Peninsula of Yucatan, in 
Central America, and of Denmark, in Europe, both of which 
project toward the north. 

33. The great point of dissimilarity hetween the Eastern Con- 
tinent and the Western is in the prevailing direction of "the land, 
which extends from east to west in the former, and from north to 
south in the latter. 

34. Comparing the western shores of Europe and Africa with 
the eastern shores of North and South America, a mutual adapt- 
ation to unite may be observed in the advancing and retreatin", 
shape of the land. Thus the great convexity of Western Atnca 
is opposite to the indentation of the Gulf of Mexico, and the con- 
vexity of the Brazilian shore is opposite to the Gulf of Guinea. 
The idea has been entertained, from this peculiar outline, that the 
two continents once formed an undivided territory, which some 
great convulsion separated. 

Questions. — 29. What may be noticed by examining a map of the world ? What is the 
first feature of similarity mentioned ? 80. What is the second ? 81. What the third ? 
82. The fourth ? What exceptions are there to the fourth remark ? 83. What is the great 
point of dissimilarity between the Eastern and Western continents ? 84. What may be ob- 
served by comparing the western shores of Europe and Asia^with the eastern shores of 
North and South America ? 



10 



ISLANDS, 



LESSON IV. 



ISLANDS. 



35. Islands differ vastly in size, some being miniature conti- 
nents, with systems of mountains, rivers, and lakes, while others 
are mere banks of sand or points of rocks just raised above the 
level of the waves. The largest island in the world is Australia ; 
it is 2,400 miles from east to west, 1,700 miles from north to 
south, and contains an area of about 3,000,000 of square miles. 
Its extent of coast-line is about 8,000 miles. 

36. The following table exhibits the area of some of the largest islands, 
and their relative size, as compared with the area of the State of New York 
(46,220 square miles). 



Name. 


Area in Square 
Miles. 


Compara- 
tive Size. 


STATE OF UEW IOR& 


4G,220 

30,000 
32,515 
36,000 
43,000 

83,827 
120,000 
200,000 
200,000 
270,000 
3,000,000 


I'OO 

•65 
•70 

•78 
•90 

1-82 
2-59 
4-33 
4-33 
5-08 
64-81 


Iceland ........... 


Ireland 


Newfoundland 


Cuba 


Great Britain, including England, Wales, and 
Scotland 


Sumatra 


Papua, or New Guinea. ... ............ 


Madagascar 


Borneo 


Australia 



37. Of the small islands, the most remarkable is Rockall, in 
the North Atlantic ; it is only a hundred yards in circumference, 
and is situated 260 miles from the north coast of Ireland, and 
180 from any other land. 

38. Islands occur under various conditions, in chains, clusters, 
archipelagoes, or singly. 

39. The principal chains are adjacent to some main shore, and 
on this account they are sometimes termed continental islands. 
They are long in proportion to their breadth, and foUow each other 
in succession along the margin of the continents. America offers 

Questions. — 35. How do islands differ? The largest island and its extent? 36. What 
is the area of Iceland, and what its relative size as compared with the State of New York ? 
Ireland? Newfoundland? Cuba? Great Britain? Sumatra? Papua, or New Guinea ? 
Madagascar? Borneo? Australia? 37 Give particulars of the island of Eockal ? 38. Un- 
der what various conditions do islands occur ? 39. Where are the principal chains? Shape 
and arrangement ? Wliat chains belonging to America are mentioned ? Other instances ? 



ISLANDS. 



11 



numerous examples of this kind of islands. On the northwestern 
c'^ast there is a long cham of them, beginning with Vancouver's 
•island on the south Another range occurs at the southern ex- 
tremity of South America, extending from Chiloe to Cape Horn. 
To this "class also belong the Aleutian Isles, which form a chain 
between North America and Asia, in the North Pacific, and the 
Kurile and Japan Isles, stretching along the eastern Asiatic coast. 

40. Clusters, sometimes called oceanic islands, are those which 
occur at a distance from continents. They are very numerous in 
the Pacific and Indian oceans They usually contain one or two 
principal members centrally situated with reference to others of 
smaller size, as, for example, the Marquesas and Society groups. 

41. An archipelago is a sea interspersed with numerous islands. 
The term archipelago was originally applied to those islands 
which lie between the shores of Greece and Asia Minor. The 
principal archipelagoes are the Caribbean, or Antilles, in the West 
Indies ; the Maldive and Laccadive, in the Indian Ocean ; the 
Dangerous, Louisiade, and Great Cyclades, in the Pacific Ocean. 

42. Single islands at a great distance from any other shore 
are of rare occurrence. St. Helena, remarkable for being the 




St. Helena. 

place of Napoleon's last exile, is 1,800 miles from the coast of 
Brazil, 1,200 from the coast of Africa, and 680 from Ascension 



Questions — 40. What are clusters ? Where numerous ? How rpually arranged ? Exam- 
ples? 41. What is an archipelago? How originally applied ? Principal archipelagoes ? 
42. What is said of single islands ? St. Helena ? Ascension Island ? 



12 



VOLCANIC ISLANDS. 



Island, the nearest point of land. Ascension Island is also 520 
miles from its next neighbor, the Isle of St. Matthew. 

43 A vast number of islands are volcanic. Some are at pres- 
ent the scenes of fiery convulsions. Volcanic islands are found 
principally in the Indian and Pacific oceans, though some occur 
in high northern and southern latitudes. They are characterized 
by a considerable elevation, with a precipitous coast. 

44. In the Grecian Archipelago, the Old Kaimeni, a small islet, 
was thrown up somewhat more than two centuries before the 
Christian era. A second appeared in the year 1573, called the 
Little Kaimeni, and a third was formed in the year 1707, called 
the New Kaimeni. 

45. In the year 1811, the temporary island of Sabrina rose off 
the coast of St. Michael, one of the Azores. It attained the height 
of 300 feet, was about a mile in circumference, but gradually 
subsided, and wholly disappeared by the close of February, 1812. 
In 1813 there were five hundred feet of water at the spot. 

46. The most re- 
cent instance of an 
island formed by vol- 
canic action was 
Graham Island, which 
rose m the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, south- 
west of Sicily, in July, 
1831. A column of 
water was seen rising 
from the sea like a 
water-spout, followed 
by dense steam, and 
an island which gain- 
ed the height of 200 
Graham Island. feet, and a circumfer- 

ence of three miles. Toward the close of the year, this island 
gradually sank beneath the waves, forming a dangerous shoal. 

Questions.— 4S. What is said of volcanic islands? Where principally found? How 
characterized? 44. What volcanic islands were formed in the Grecian Archipelajro? 45. 
Give the particulars of the formation and disappearance of the island of Sabrina. 46. Of 
Graham Island. 




CORAL ISLANDS. 13 



LESSON V. 

CORAL ISLANDS. 

47. A VAST number of islands and reefs* in the Pacific and 
Indian oceans are of coral formation. They owe their existence 
to the work of countless myriads of the coral-insect which inhabit 
those seas, and which flourish only in the warmer regions of the 
globe. 

48. Coralline structures are sometimes of enormous 'extent. 
On the northeast coast of Australia is a reef of coral called the 
Great Barrier Reef, having a length of nearly 1,000 miles, and be- 
ing in one part unbroken for a distance of 350 miles. Some groups 
of coral islands in the Pacific are from 1,100 to 1,200 miles in 
length, by 300 or 400 in breadth, as the Dangerous and Radack 
archipelagoes, for example. The Maldive Islands, situated in 
the Indian Ocean, forming a chain of 470 geographical miles, are 
composed throughout of a series of circular assemblages of islets, 
all formed of coral. 

49. The following description of coral animals and their operations is 
from Hughes' " Manual of Geography :" " The coral reefs of the Pacific, as 
■well as those in other parts of the globe, are all produced by the secretions 
of the coral-insect, and the process by which they are formed is one of the 
most curious and instructive phenomena which the natural world presents 
to view.' The architects of these wonderful structures are polypes of minute 
size, and of various species, but all possessing a general similarity of form 
and structure. They consist, to appearance, of a little oblong bag of jelly, 
closed at one end, but having the other extremity open, and surrounded by 
tentacles (usually six or eight in number), set like the rays of a star. 

50. " Multitudes of these tiny creatures are associated in the secretion 
of a common stony skeleton, that is, the coral, or madrepore, in the minute 
orifices of which they reside ; protruding their mouths and tentacles when 
under water, but the moment they are molested, or become exposed to the 
atmosphere, withdrawing by sudden contraction into their holes. It is 
proved by observation that these creatures are unable to exist at a greater 

Questions. — 4T. Islands and reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans ? To what owing ? 
48. Extent of coralline structures ? Great Barrier Eeef ? Groups in the Indian and Pacific 
oceans ? Examples ? Maldive Islands ? 49. Coral reefs, how formed ? Architects of 
these wonderful structures? Of what do they consist? 50. Describe the operations of the 
coral insects. To wliat d( pth do th(;y exist? Upon what must coral islands be based ? 



* Rkef, a chain or range of rocks lying at or near the surface of the water. 



14 



GOKAL ISLANDS. 



depth than twenty or thirty fathoms ; so that the numberless coral islands 
of the Pacific, and other seas, must be based upon submarine rocks, or mount- 
ains, though it was at one time supposed that they were raised, by the pro- 
cess described above, from the bottom of the sea." 

51. Coral formations are of four different kinds, namely, atolls, 
or lagoon islands, encircling reefs, barrier-reefs, and coral fringes. 

52. An atoll consists of a circular strip or ring of coral sur- 
rounding a shallow lake or lagoon in its center. The circular 
reefs just raise themselves above the level of the sea, with an 
average breadth of a quarter of a mile, oftener less, and are sur- 
rounded by a deep and often unfathomable ocean. The annexed 
cut represents one of these circular islands inclosing a lagoon of 
tranquil water. 




Coral Island 



The usual form of such islands may be seen in the section 
below. 

. ; % __/ 7 ^ 




Section of a Coral Island 

a, a. Habitable part of the island, consisting of a strip of coral, inclosing 
a lagoon, b, b. The lagoon. 

53. Lagoons are found in a very large proportion of the coral 
islands. They were found in twenty-nine out of the thirty-two 

Questions. — 51. Kinds of coral formations? 52. The atoll? What does it surround? 
Height of the circular reef? Breadth? How surrounded? 53. Lagoons? Lagoons found 
by Beechey ? Their extent ? Openings into lagoons ? 



CORAL ISLANDS. 15 

islands visited by Beechey, in his voyage to the Pacific. The 
largest was thirty miles in diameter, and the smallest less than a 
mile. There is almost always a deep narrow passage opening 
into the lagoon, generally on the leeward side, which is kept open 
by the efflux of the sea, as the tide goes down, and through this 
channel ships may sail into the inclosed waters and find a good 
harbor. 

54. Encircling-reefs are those which extend around mountain- 
ous islands, commonly at a distance of two or three miles from 
the shore, rising on the outside from a very deep ocean, and sep- 
arated from the land by a channel 200 or 300 feet deep. The 
Caroline Archipelago exhibits examples of this structure. Otaheite 
(Tahiti), the largest of the Society group, is an instance of an en- 
circled island of the most beautiful kind, being hemmed in from 
the ocean by a coral band, at a distance varying from half a mile 
to three miles. 

55. Barrier-reefs are similar in their structure to the two pre- 
ceding classes, but differ from them in their position with regard 
to the land. The largest of this class is the Great Barrier Reef 
off the northeast coast of Australia, before alluded to (48). It 
rises up in the ocean at an average distance of from 20 to 30 
miles from the shore, and extends to the distance of about 1,000 
miles. 

56. The action of the waves as they dash upon this reef has been admi- 
rably described: "The long ocean-swell being suddenly impeded by this 
barrier, lifted itself in one great continuous ridge of deep blue water, which, 
curling over, fell on the edge of the reef in an unbroken cataract of dazzling 
white foam. Each line of breaker ran often one or two miles in length with 
not a perceptible gap in its continuity. There was a simple grandeur and 
display of power and beauty in this scene that rose even to sublimity. The 
imbroken roar of the surf, with its regular pulsation of thunder, as each 
succeeding swell fell first on the outer edge of the reef, was almost deafening, 
yet so deep-toned as not to interfere with the slightest nearer and sharper 
sound But the sound and sight were such as to impress the spec- 
tator with the consciousness of standing in the presence of an overwhelm- 
ing majesty and power." 

57. The Florida reefs are of this class. By examining a map 

^M^f io^zs.— Eneircling-reefs ? Example ? Otaheite ? 55. Barrier reefs ? Tfcie largest 
of this class ? 56. Describe the appearance of this reef? 57. To what class do the Florida 
reefs belong? Island soath of Florida? The height? Where do they begin and where 
extend ? Their size ? 



16 COKAL ISLANDS. 

of the waters south of Florida, it will be seen that they are stud- 
ded with a range of islands called the Florida Keys. These keys 
rise but a few feet, perhaps from six to eight or ten, or at the ut- 
most to twelve or thirteen feet above the level of the sea. They 
begin to the north of Cape Florida, and extend in a southwesterly 
direction, gradually receding from the land until opposite Cape 
Sable. Farther to the west they project in a more westerly 
course as far as the Tortugas Islands, which form the most west- 
ern group. Most of these islands are small, the largest of them, 
such as Key West and Key Largo, not exceeding ten or fifteen 
miles in length ; others only two or three, and many scarcely a 
miles. Their width varies from a quarter to a third or half of a 
mile, the largest barely measuring a mile across. 

58. The reef extends parallel to the main range of keys, for a 
few miles south or southeast of it, following the same curve, and 
never receding many miles from it. The distance between the 
reef and the main range of keys varies from six to two or three 
miles. Between this reef and the main range of keys there is 
a broad, navigable channel, extending the whole length of the 
reef, varying in depth from eighteen to forty feet. 

59. The great danger of this reef arises from the fact that 
throughout its whole range it does not reach the surface of the 
sea, except in a few points, where it comes almost to the level of 
low-water mark. It therefore presents a range of most danger- 
ous shoal grounds, upon which thousands of vessels, as well as 
millions of property, have been wrecked. 

60. Coral-fringes are those formations which extend along the 
margin of a shore, and have no lagoons. 

61. Captain Basil Hall, in his " Voyage to Loo-Choo," makes the following 
observations on coral islands : " The examination of a coral reef during the 
different stages of one tide is particularly interesting. When the sea has 
left it for some time, it becomes dry, and appears to be a compact rock ex- 
ceedingly hard and ragged ; but no sooner does the tide rise again, and the 
waves begin to wash over it, than millions of coral worms protrude them- 
selves from holes on the surface which were before quite invisible. These 
animals are of a great variety of shapes and size^, and in such prodigious 
numbers, that in a short time the whole surface of the rock appears to be 
alive and in motion. 

Questions, — 58 Where does the reef extend ? Distance between the reef and the main 
range of keysV Channel? 59. Danger of this reef? "Vessels and property destroyed? 
61) Coral-fringes ? 



CORAL ISLANDS. 17 

G2. " The most common of the worms at Loo-Choo (an island in the Pacific 
east of China), was in the form of a star, with arms from four to six inches 
long, which it moYcd about with a rapid motion in all directions, probably 
in search of food. Others were so sluggish, that they were often mistaken 
for pieces of the rock ; these were generally of a dark color, and from four 
to five inches long and two or three round. When the rock was broken from 
a spot near the level of high water, it was found to be a hard solid stone ; 
but if any part of it were detached at a level to which the tide reached 
every day, it was discovered to be full of worms, all of different lengths and 
colors, some being as fine as thread and several feet long, generally of a 
very bright yellow, 'and sometimes of a blue color ; while others resembled 
snails, and some were not unlike lobsters and prawns in shape, but soft, and 
not above two inches long. 

63. " The growth of coral ceases when the worm which creates it is no 
longer exposed to the washing of the tide. Thus a reef rises in the form of 
a gigantic caixliflower, till its top has gained the level of the highest tides, 
above which the worm has no power to carry its operations, and the reef, 
consequently, no longer extends itself upward. The surrounding parts, 
however, advance in succession till they reach the surface, where they also 
must stop. Thus, as the level of the highest tide is the eventual limit to 
every part of the reef, a horizontal field comes to be formed coincident with 
that plane, and perpendicular on all sides. The reef, however, continually 
increases, and being prevented from going higher, must extend itself lat- 
erally in all directions ; and this growth being probably as rapid at the 
upper edge as it is lower dovni, the steepness of the face of the reef is pre- 
served ; and it is this circumstance which renders this species of rock so 
dangerous to navigation. In the first place, they are seldom seen above the 
water ; and in the next, their sides are so abrupt that a ship's bows may 
strike against the rock before any change of soundings indicates the ap- 
proach of danger. 

64. " For a long time it was supposed that the coral formations were rais- 
ed from the floor of the fathomless ocean by the unaided efforts of these 
little creatures, but more accurate observations have proved that the ani- 
mals cease to live at a greater depth than twenty or thirty fathoms 

As some of these islands are elevated 200 and 300 feet above the sea-level, 
it is evident that they must liave been raised by submarine forces; in short, 
that the volcano and the earthquake must have been employed in rearing 
them to their present elevation. Mr. Darwin has traced those regions 
throughout the Pacific, in which upheaval and depression alternately pre- 
vail. Thus a band of atolls and encircled islands, including the Dangerous 
and Society archipelagoes, constitutes an area of subsidence more than 4,000 
miles long and 600 broad. To the westward, the chain of f ringing-reefs, 
embracing the islands of the New Hebrides, Solomon, and New Ireland, 
form an area of elevated coral. Farther westward, another area of subsi- 
dence is met with, including the islands of New Caledonia, and the Aus- 
tralian barrier." 



18 



MOUNTAINS, 



LESSON VI 

MOUNTAINS. 




Climbing the 



65. Mountains are the 
most considerable elevations 
of the surface of the earth. 
They are of various heights, 
the loftiest having an elevation 
of more than five miles above 
the level of the sea. Though 
generally sterile, and unsuited for the residence of man, they 
have their uses in the economy of nature. They accumulate 
the moisture of the clouds, and feed the rivers w^hich water and 
fertilize the plains below. They increase the surface of the 
earth, and consequently its productions. To their gigantic pro- 
portions, their lofty projections, and their broken and varied 
forms, are we largely indebted for sublime and savage, or beau- 
tiful and picturesque scenery. 



Questions. — 65. What are mountains? What is eaid of their heights ? Uses of mount- 
ains ? 



MOUNTAINS. ly 

66. There are but few insulated mountains, or mountains re- 
mote from other masses, and ascending abruptly from a level 
country. The examples are chiefly volcanic, as Mount Egmont, 
in New Zealand, and the Peak of Teneriffe, on one of-the Canary 
Islands. The usual arrangement is in groups or chains, the 
members of which are connected at the base! The term system 
is applied to a series of chains, groups, and parallel ranges lying 
in the same general direction, though detached. The highest 
points are usually about the middle of the range. 

67. The great mountain systems of the two continents follow 
the prevailing direction of the land in each ; those of the western 
world running north and south ; those of the eastern, east and 
west. The course of secondary chains, as the Apennines in 
Italy, the Dovre-field in Norway, and the Ghauts in India, corre- 
spond with the greatest length of those peninsulas. 

68. The highest known mountain on the globe is Kunchinjinga, 
m Asia. It belongs to the Himalaya range, and is situated in 
longitude 88° 30' east. Its summit is 28,178 feet above the level 
of the sea. In the same range, to the west, is Dhawlagiri, the 
next in height (28,073 ft.), and which was, until recently, con- 
sidered the highest mountain on the globe. The loftiest mount- 
ains in the other four grand divisions, are, in South America, 
Aconcagua, one of the Chilean Andes (23,944 ft.) ; in North 
America, Mount St. Elias, in the Coast Range (17,900 ft.); in 
Africa, Mount Kilimandjaro (supposed 20,000 ft.) ; and in Europe, 
Mount Blanc (15,750 ft.). 

69. The mountains of the torrid zone are capable of being in- 
habited by man to a very considerable height. Under the equator 
the line of perpetual snow is not less than about 16,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. As we approach toward the poles 
this line gradually descends, rendering the mountains of the tem- 
perate zones inhabitable to no very considerable elevation. On 
Mount Blanc the snow-line is about 8,500 feet above the sea- 

Questions.— &Q. Insulated mountains? Examples? What is the usual arrangement of 
mountains ? To what is the term system applied ? 67. Direction of the great mountain 
systems of the two continents ? Course of the secondary chains ? 68. The highest known 
mountain, its situation and height ? Dhawlagiri ? Name and height of the loftiest mount- 
ain in South America? In North America? In Africa? In Europe? 69. Habitation 
of mountains in the torrid zone ? The line of perpetual snow under the equator ? Toward 
the poles ? 



'20 



MOUNTAINS. 



level, and at the height of 6,000 feet the climate is of veryL 
great severity. 









Mount Egmont 



70. Table of the heights above the i 
Feet. 

Geneva, Switzerland 1,450 

Madrid, Spain 2,170 

Jerusalem, Mount Zion ..... 2,200 
Priory of Chamouni, Switz- 
erland 3,346 

Palace of the Escurial, Spain 3,520 

Teheran, Persia 3,785 

Ispahan, do 4,140 

Great Salt Lake City, U. S. . 4,300 
Hanipelbaude, highest inhab- 
ited house of Prussia 4,300 

Splugen, village, Switzerland 4,711 



a of some remarkable inhabited sites. 
Feet 
Mont Louis, Eastern Pyren- 
ees, highest town of France 6,171 

Cabool, Afghanistan 6,380 

Post-house on Mont Cenis, 

Alps.-, 6,453 

Soglio, village in the Grisons, 

highest village in Europe. 6,714 

Hospital of St. Gothard, Alps 6,808 

Mexico, city 7,570 

Arequipa, city, Peru 7,852 

Hospital of the Great St. 

Bernard, Alps 8,170 



Questions.— 1^. Height of Geneva ? Madrid ? Jerusalem ? Great Salt Lake City ? Mex- 
ico? Santa Fe de Bogota ? Chuquisaca? Quito? Potosi? Shepherds' huts, Equador ? 
The post-house, Euraihausi, Pt ru ? 



MOUNTAINS, 



21 



Fee. 
Santa Fe de Bogota, capital 

of New Granada 8,650 

Chuquisaca, capital of Bolivia 9,250 
Pass of Santa Maria, Alps, 
highest permanent habita- 
tion in Europe 9,272 

Quito, capital of Equador . . 9,540 

Ladak, city. Little Tibit 9,995 

Cuzco, ancient capital of Peru 11,380 



Feet 

Milum, village, Himalaya .. 11,405 

La Paz, city, Bolivia 12,226 

Puno, city, Peru 12,870 

Potosi, Bolivia, highest city 

of the globe 13,350 

Antisana, shepherds' huts, 

Equador. 13,454 

Tacora, village, Peru 13,690 

Rumihausi, post-house, ditto 15,540 



71. The summits of the loftiest mountains have never been 
reached, though some adventurous travelers have attained heights 
where man can find no local habitation. The difficulties encoun- 
tered m ascending elevated mountains arise from the precipitous 
character of the surface, the vast accumulation of snow, the 
intense cold, and the rarity or thinness of the atmosphere. Trav- 
elers have found the rarefied atmosphere on high mountains to 
cause a bleeding from the nose and eyes, and to produce other 
unpleasant effects. 

72. In the following list are given some remarkable heights which have 
been reached : 

Sites. Names. Dates. Heights. 

Mount Blanc, Alps Dr. Paccard and James Balma Aug., 1786 15,750 

Jungfrau, do. , The brothers Meyer, of Arau 1811 12,872 

Ortler Spitz, do Three peasants of the Tyrol 1804 12,850 

Peak of Demavend Mr. Taylor Thompson, 1st European.. Sept. 9, 1837.. 14,700 

Ararat Professor Parrot, and 5 attendants . . . Oct. 9, 1829 . .17,210 

Pamir, Central Asia Lieutenant John Wood Feb. 19, 1838. .15.000 

Peter Botte, Mauritius Captain Lloyd and officers Sept. 7. 1832. . 2,800 

Mouna-Kaah, Owhyhee Mr, David Douglas Jan., 1834 13.5S7 

Mount Egmont. New Zealand . .Dr. Dieffenbach Dec, 1S40 S.839 

Silla de Garaccas Humboldt and Bonpland Jan., 1800 8,6-33 

Pichincha, Andes Bouguer and Condamine 1736 15,924 

Chimborazo, do., point reach- \ 

ed, highest point of the )-M. Boussingault and Colonel Hall. , . 1831 19,699 

globe ever attained by man ) 



— 71. What id said of heights attained by adventurous travelers? The diffi- 
culty of ascending elevated mountains? 72. Name the heights reached on the following 
mountains, and by whom: Mount Blanc, Jungfrau, Ortler Spitz, Peak of Demavend, Ara- 
rat, Pamir, Peter Botte, Mouna-Kaah, Mount Eemont, Silla de Oaraccas, Pichincha, Chim- 
borazo. 



22 NOKTH AMERICAN MOUNTAINS, 



LESSON VII. 

THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 

73. North American Mountains. — North America contains 
three great mountain systems, — the Rocky Mountains, the mount- 
ains of the West Coast, and the Apalachian system. It em- 
braces besides, the elevated regions of the Ozark Mountains, the 
highlands of Labrador and the Arctic coast, and the upland plains, 
or plateaus, of Mexico. 

-^^ 74. The Rocky 

Mountains constitute 
the most extensive 
mountain system of 
North America. They 
extend from north to 
south through all the 
i^ wider part of the con- 
tinent ; or from the 
shores of the Arctic 
Ocean on the north 
to about the parallel 
of 32° on the south. 




Rocky Mountain Scenery. 

The northern portion 
is divided into numerous ranges, with hardly more elevation than 
from one to two thousand feet. As they advance southward 
their height increases, and many of their summits rise above the 
snow-line. They attain the most considerable elevations be- 
tween the 55th and 38th parallels. The average heights be- 
tween these limits is from seven to eight thousand feet. The 
highest summits of the system are Mount Brown (16,000 ft.), 
and Mount Hooker (15,700 ft.), both near the line of the 52d 
parallel. 

Questions. — 73. What three great mountain systems does North America contain ? What 
other elevated regions does it embrace? 74. What is said of the Eocky Mountains ? Where 
do they extend ? What is said of the northern portion ? Where do they attain the most 
considerable elevation? What is the average height between these limits? Which are 
Ihe highest summits of the system? 



NORTH AMERICAN MOUNTAINS. 23 

75. Numerous passes occur in the range of the Rocky Mount- 
ains, the principal one of which is that known as the South Pass, 
near the 41st parallel. It is at an altitude of more than 7,000 
feet above the level of the sea, and affords a passage so easy of 
access, that a wagon drawn by horses might travel through it. 
Thousands of emigrants, with their cattle, every year traverse 
this pass on their way to the valleys of the Pacific. 

76. The Mountains of the West Coast extend along the Pa- 
cific, from Cape St. Lucas to the Peninsula of Alaska. They 
embrace the Sierra Nevada of California and the Cascade Range 
of Oregon. Among the elevated peaks are Mount Hood, in the 
Cascade Range (12,000 ft.) ; Mount St. Eiias, near the 60th par- 
allel (17,900 ft.) ; and Mount Fairweather, near the 59th parallel 
(14,750 ft.). The Sierra Nevada rises above the snow-line, and 
attains a main elevation of between seven and eight thousand 
feet. To the west of this range lie the gold regions of Cali- 
fornia. 

77. The Apalachian, or Alleghany, ranges constitute the third 
great mountain system of North America. They extend along 
the eastern side of the continent, and within the older settled 
portion of the United States. They terminate at the south near 
the 34th parallel, and at the north near the shores of the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence. This range is broken by the valley of the 
Hudson River and Lake Champlain. The southern portion (to 
which the term " Alleghany" is alone applied) consists of nu- 
merous parallel ridges separated by longitudinal valleys. The 
northeastern section embraces the Green Mountains of Vermont 
and the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The Adirondack 
Mountains, which extend through the northern part of New 
York to the west of Lake Champlain, form a part of this system. 
Intermediate between the Adirondack. Mountains and the main 
range of the Alleghanies, lie the Catskill Mountains, which are 

Questions. — 75. Where is the principal pass situated? What is said of it? 76. Where 
do the mountains of the West Coast extend ? What minor ranges do they embrace ? 
What peaks, their height and situation ? What is said of the Sierra Nevada ? Where do 
the gold regions of CaUfomia lie ? 77. What is said of the Apalachian, or Alleghany, 
range ? Where do they extend ? Where do they terminate at the south ? At the north ? 
By what valley is this range broken ? What is said of the southern portion ? What mount- 
ains does the northeastern section embrace ? What is said of the Adirondack Mountains ? 
The Cattskill Mountains ? ■ 



24: 



NOKTH AMERICAN MOUNTAINS. 



terminated on the north by the valley of the Mohawk, and on 
tile east by the Hudson River. 




White Mountains 



73. The Apalachian range extends a distance of 1,500 miles, 
with an average height of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. Among 
the highest elevations are Mount Mitchell in North Carolina, 
the highest of the entire system (6,476 ft.) ; Mount Washington 
of the White Mountains (6,285 ft.) ; Mount Marcy of the Adiron- 
dack range, the highest in New York (5,467 ft.) ; and Mansfield 
Mountain, the highest of the Green Mountains (4,279 ft.). 

79. The Ozark Mountains are about *3 00 miles in length, and 
extend from the State of Missouri, through the northeast part 
of Arkansas into the Indian Territory. They vary from one to 
two thousand feet in height. The highlands of Labrador and 
the Arctic coast have a very broken and rugged surface, and an 

Questions. — 7S. What distance docs the Apalachian range extend ? What is the aver- 
age height? Which are among the highest summits? Give the heigiit of each. 79. 
The Ozark Mountains? What is their height? Describe the highlands of Labrador and 
the Arctic coast. 



SOUTH AMERICAN MOUNTAINS. 25 

average elevation of from one to two thousand feet. They con- 
tain a great number of lakes, and possess a climate of very great 
severity. 

80. The principal mountains in Mexico are isolated peaks, 
many of which are active volcanoes. Several of these peaks 
lie along the line of the 1 9th parallel : among them are Colima, 
Jorullo, Toluca, Popocatepetl, and Orizaba. 

81. South American Mountains. — South America likewise 
contains three mountain systems, — the chain of the Andes, the 
mountains of Guiana, and the mountains of Brazil. 

82. The Andes, or Cordilleras de los Andes (Chains of the 
Andes), commence on the north near the Isthmus of Panama, and 
run in a southerly direction to the Straits of Magellan. In the 
south of Chile and in Patagonia they form the coast-line, and at 
the greatest distance, in about the middle of Chile, are but 100 
miles from the sea. Their general breadth rarely exceeds from 
200 to 250 miles ; but between the 20th and 25th parallels they 
are upward of 400 miles across. 

83. The Andes are divided, according to the countries through 
which they extend, into the Columbian, Peruvian, Bolivian, Chil- 
ean, and Patagonian Andes. 

84. The Columbian Andes begin at the commencement of the 
mountainous region on the north, and extend to the 4th degree of 
south latitude. They have an average height of from 11,000 to 
12,000 feet, and the highest peaks exceed 20,000 feet. The 
most elevated of these is Chimborazo (21,415 feet), which was 
long supposed to be the loftiest mountain in the New World. 

85. The Peruvian and Bolivian Andes extend from the 4th to 
the 28th parallel of south latitude, and are remarkable for the 

Questions. — 80. What is said of the principal mountains in Mexico ? What volcanic 
peaks lie along the line of the 19th parallel ? 81. How many mountain systems does South 
America contain, and how are they designated ? 82. Describe the situation of the Andes ? 
Where do they form the coast-line, and where are they at the greatest distance from the 
coast ? What is their general breadth ? Their greatest breadth ? 83. How are the Andes 
divided ? 84. Where are the Columbian Andes situated ? Average height ? Highest 
peaks? Chimborazo? 85. Between what parallels do the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes 
extend ? For what are they remarkable ? How high are many of the passes in this por- 
tion of the Andes ? 

2 



Sib EUROPEAN MOUNTAINS. 

great number of elevated summits they contain, several of which 
have an altitude of more than 20,000 feet. Many of the passes 
in this portion of the Andes are between 15,000 and 16,000 feet 
in height. 

86. The Chilean Andes are remarkable for containing the high- 
est known summit in the Western Continent — Aconcagua^ which 
attains an altitude of 23,944 feet aboveHhe level of the sea. The 
Patagonian Andes rise abruptly from the shores of the Pacific, 
which they border to a distance of about 1,000 miles from Cape 
Horn to the 40th parallel of south latitude. The average height 
of the Patagonian Andes is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, though in 
some places they attain an elevation of 9,000 feet. 

87. The Mountains of Guiana extend from the river Orinoco 
in a southeasterly direction nearly to the mouth of the Amazon. 
The most western of these mountains is distinguished as the 
Parime Mountains, and the eastern as the Sierra Acaray. Mount 
Maravaca, the highest summit of the system, has an elevation of 
about 11,000 feet. 

88. The Mountains of Brazil embrace a great extent of coun- 
try ; they lie mostly in narrow chains or ridges, the most elevated 
summits of which appear to be less than 6,000 feet high. 



LESSON YIII. 

MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. 

89. European Mountains. — The continental part of Europe 
embraces two important mountain systems, — one in the south and 
the other in the north, the former being by far the most extensive. 
The Ural and Caucasus mountains, though usually classed among 
those of Europe, form natural boundaries between Europe and 
Asia, and therefore belong as much to one division as the other. 
The south mountain region includes the Balkan, the Alps, the 

Questions.— Q&. For what are the Chilean Andes remarkable? Aconcagua? What is 
said of the Patagonian Andes ? Average height ? ST. Where do the mountains of Guiana 
extend ? By what name is the most western of these mountains distinguished ? The 
*iastern ? 88. What is said of the mountains of Brazil ? 89. How many important mouut- 
j\ systems does continental Europe embrace, and where are they situated ? What ranges 
^oes the south mountain region include ? Through what countries does the north mount- 
«.n region extend ? What is said of the Ural and Caucasus mountains ? 



EUEOPEAN MOUNTAINS 



27 



Carpathian Mountains, the mountains of the Spanish peninsula, 
aud the Apennines of Italy. The north mountain regions ex- 
tend through Norway and Sweden, constituting what are some- 
times called the Scandinavian Mountains. 

90. The Balkan Mountains are situated south of the river 
Danube, and extend from the shores of the Black Sea, in a west- 
erly direction, through the central part of Turkey in Europe. A 
branch leaves the main chain about the meridian of 23° east, and 
stretches northward to the banks of the Danube ; this may be 
called the North Balkan Mountains. South of the Balkan are 
three considerable branches, — the Little Balkan, the Despoto 
Dagh, and the chain of Mount Pindus, the latter stretching through 
the whole of the Grecian peninsula. The mountains of the 
Balkan system have generally but a moderate elevation, not ex- 
ceeding on the average from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea- 
level. In some instances, however, they reach as high as 8,0C0 
or 10,000 feet. 

91. The Alps ex- 
tend from about the 
meridian of 15° east 
longitude, in a semi- 
circular sweep of about 
700 miles to the head 
of the Gulf of Genoa. 
Their breadth varies 
from 100 to 130 miles. 
They are highest in 
the western part, where 
the crest of the range 
has an average eleva-' 
tion of between 8,000 
and 9,000 feet. Mont 
Blanc, their loftiest ^^'"' °'^ '^" ^^P"' 

summit, and the highest mountain in Europe, has an elevation of 

Questions.— ^Q. Where are the Balkan Mountains situated ? What branch on the north ? 
What branches on the south ? Height of the Bali<an Mountains ? 91. Describe the situa- 
tion of the Alps. Their breadth ? Average height In the western pan ? Whnt is said of 
Mont Blanc ? Of numerous other summits ? What is the height of the limit of perpetual 
snow? What is said of the pass of Mont Cenis? Groat St. Bernard? Mont Ccrvin? 
The great road of the Simplon ? 




23 



EUROPEAN MOUNTAINS, 



15,730 feet. Numerous summits exceed 10,000 feet in height, 
and rise above the limit of perpetual snow, the line of which is 
here between 8,000 and 9,000 feet above the level of the ocean. 
The most frequented pass, that of Mont Cenis (between Savoy 
and Piedmont), is 6,770 feet above the sea. It is much more 
steep and difficult on the Italian side than on that of Savoy. It 
consists of a plain, 6 miles long by 4 miles wide, encircled on all 
sides by the different eminences and ridges that form the summit 
of this part of the chain. The surrounding heights are from 2,500 
to 4,500 feet above the plain. The pass of the Great St. Bernard 




Dogs of St Eern:ira 

Is 8,170 feet high; it is celebrated for the passage of the French 
army over it m the year 1800, but more so for its hospice and saga- 
cious dogs, employed m the rescue of travelers, benighted or en- 
dangered by the snow-storms. Thepass of Mont Cervin, farther to 



EUROPEAN MOUNTAINS. 29 

the eastward, is 11,100 feet, and is the highest pass in Europe, 
but is not practicable for carriages. The great road of the Sim- 
plon, constructed by Napoleon, attains an elevation of 6,585 feet. 

92. The Apennines commence near the head of the Gulf of 
Genoa, and extend in a southeasterly direction through Italy. 
The average height of the crest of the Apennines varies from 
3,000 to 5,000 feet, but in the central portion of the chain sev- 
eral summits are between 7,000 and 8,000 feet high. A volcanic 
region extends along the west side of the Apennines between 
tho 40th and 43d parallels, and at its southern extremity is Mount 
Vesuvius, 3,932 feet in height, and the only active volcano in 
continental Europe. 

93. The Carpathian Mountains are situated to the north of 
the river Danube. The higher portions have an elevation of 
between 5,000 and 6,000 feet. A number of peaks, however, 
exceed 8,000 feet. The Carpathians are, in general, exceedingly 
rugged, and the passes through them narrow and difficult. To 
the west of the 18th meridian are several ranges encompassing 
the plains of Bohemia, sometimes known as the Hercynian 
Mountains, having an average elevation of from 2,000 to 3,000 
feet. The range on the north of Bohemia is called the Erz Ge- 
birg, a word signifying '• ore mountains." 

94. The mountains of the Spanish peninsula consist of the 
Pyrenees and the Cantahrian Mountains in the north ; the Cas- 
tilian Mountains, the Mountains of Toledo, the range of the Si- 
erra Morena, which extend in nearly parallel courses through the 
central part ; and the range of the Sierra Nevada in the south. 
The Pyrenees are about 300 miles in length, and have an aver- 
age elevation of from 7,000 to 8,000 feet. Its highest summit, 
the Peak of Nethou, is 11,426 feet in elevation. The Canta- 
brian Mountains have an average elevation of from 4,000 to 
G,000 feet, but some of the summits exceed 10,000 feet. The 
mountains of central Spain are not remarkable for great height, 

Questions. — 92. What is said of the Apennines? Height? Yolcanic region? Mount 
Vesuvius? 93. The Carpathian Mountains? Height? General character of the Ctirpa- 
thian Mountains ? Eanges to the west of the 18th meridian ? 94. What are the principal 
- mountain ranges of the Spanish peninsula? The Pyrenees ? The peak of Nethou ? The 
Cantahrian Mountains ? Mountains of central Spain ? Highest summits ? The peak of 
Mulhacen 1 



so ASIATIC MOUNTAINS. 

but few rising above 5,000 feet. The highest summits of the 
Spanish peninsula are those of the Sierra Nevada, the general 
height of which varies from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. The Peak of 
Mulhacen, in this range, has an elevation of 11,657 feet. 

95. The mountains of Norway and Sweden, sometimes called 
the Scandinavian Mountains, extend along the Atlantic coast, 
from the Naze (the south point of Norway) to the North Cape. 
Their average height is from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but some peaks, 
as the Snee-hsetten (snow hat), in the Dovre-field, are above 8,000 
feet in height. The North Cape, in the island of Mageroe, which 
is a detached member of this mountain system, is a high mass 
of rock rising to 1,161 feet in elevation, and broken into pyra- 
midal cliffs by the force of the waves. 

96. The Ural Mountains form the eastern boundary of Europe. 
They extend from about the 51st parallel, a distance of more 
than 1,200 miles, to the vicinity of the Arctic Ocean. Their 
mean elevation is about 2,000 feet. The chain of Mount Cauca- 
sus extends between the Caspian and Black seas, through a length 
of more than 700 miles. The breadth of the whole mountain 
region exceeds 150 miles. The highest summit, called El-burz 
[the mountain), is 18,493 feet in elevation. The line of per- 
petual snow in the Caucasus is about 1 1 ,000 feet above the level 
of the sea. 

97. Asiatic Mountains. — Asia is remarkable for embracing 
the most extensive mountain system in the world. The ranges 
extend mostly in an east and west direction, from the eastern ex- 
tremity of the continent to the shore of the Mediterranean. 
Among the principal chains are, the Aldan, or Stanovoi Mount- 
ains, the Altai, the Thian-shan, the Kuen-lun, the Himalaya, the 
Hindoo-Koosh, the mountains of Armenia, and the chain of 
Mount Taurus. 

98. The Himalaya Mountains, which border the plateau of 
Tibet on the south, contain the loftiest summits on the globe. 

Questions. — 95. The mountains of Norway and Sweden ? Average height ? The North 
Cap'i? 96. The Ural Mountains? Extent? Mean elevation? Mount Caucasus? El- 
burz? Lino of perpetual snow? 97. For what is Asia remarkable? General direction 
of the ranges ? Principal chains ? 98. Himalaya Mountains ? Their length and breadth ? 
Mean elevation? Snow-line? Passes? 



ASIATIC MOUNTAIITS. 31 

(68), This range is about 1,500 miles in length, and from 200 
to 250 in breadth, and has a mean elevation of from 15,000 to 
1 8,000 feet. All the higher parts of the mountains are covered 
with perpetual snow. The mean height of the snow-line is about 
15,000 feet on the southern and 18,000 feet on the northern side 
of the principal range. Some of the passes over the Himalaya 
are at the remarkable elevation of 18,000 feet above the level 
of the sea, and several exceed 15,000 feet. 

99. The Altai Mountains, which extend in an east and west 
direction, between the 50th and 55th parallels, border the great 
central table-lands of interior Asia upon the north. The Thian- 
shan and the Kuen-lun ranges are intermediate to the Altai and 
Himalaya ranges. To the east of the Great Desert of Shamo, 
or Gobi, are the mountains of In-shan, and Khin-ghan. Pe-ling 
and Nan-ling (or northern and southern mountains) extend in an 
east and west direction through China, separated by the basin of . 
the Yang-tse-kiang River. 

100. The mountains of the Hindoo-Koosh (the summits of 
which are from 18,000 to 20,000 feet above the level of the sea) 
form a group m which several ranges unite : this region joins 
the elevated plateaus of Central Asia with those in the western 
part of the continent. The Paropamisan extend west from the 
Hmdoo-Koosh along the northern borders of the plateau of Iran. 
The Elhurz Mountains are a continuation of the same range, and 
extend south of the Caspian Sea, rising in Mount Demavend to 
a height of 14,700 feet. The Soleimaun (or Suleymaun) Mount- 
ains are on the east, and the Zagros Mountains on the west of 
the plateau of Iran. 

101. The Mountains of Armenia are very irregularly disposed, 
and are situated between the head waters of the Tigris and the 
Caspian Sea. Among the highest of these mountains is Mount 
Ararat, which rises to 17,260 feet above the level of the sea, 
and is covered with perpetual snow. The chain of Mount Tau- 

Questions. — 99. The Altai Mountains ? Thian-shan and Kuen-lun ranges ? What 
mountains to the east of the Great Desert of Shamo? The Pe-ling and Nan-ling? 100. 
The Hindoo-Koosh ? What regions do they unite? The Paropamisan? The Elburz 
Mountains ? The Solemaun Mountains ? The Zagros ? 101. The mountains of Armenia ? 
Mount Ararat? Mount Taurus? Argceus? The mountains of Lebaaon ? Mount Her- 
mon ? The Sinai Mountains ? 



32 



AFRICAN MOUNTAIN^, 



rus extends through Asia Minor, and Has an average elevation ot 
from 4,000 to 5,000 feet ; its highest summit, Mount Argmus, is 




Mount Ararat. 

13,100 feet r.bove the sea. The Mountains of Lebanon extend 
along the coast of Syria in a north and south direction. Mount 
Hermon, their loftiest summit, is 10,000 feet above the sea-level, 
and borders on the region of perpetual snow. The highest peak 
of the Sinai Mountains, which stand at the head of the Red Sea, 
is 9,300 feet above the sea. 

102. Mountain ranges also extend through Arabia, Hindoostan, 
the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and the peninsulas of Corea and 
Kamtchatka. 



103. African Mountains. — A range of mountains extends 
along the northern shores of Africa called Mount Atlas. It has 
a mean elevation of from 7,000 to 9,000 feet; but Mount Miltsin^ 
to the southeastward of the city of Morocco, is found to be 
11,400 feet in altitude. To the eastward of the 4th meridian of 
west longitude is a series of ranges nowhere more than from 
3,000 to 4,000 feet high. 

104. The Mountains of Abyssinia constitute another mountain 

Question fi. — 102. Other mountain ranges? 103. What mountains in the north of Africa? 
Mean elevation? Mount Miltsin? 104. On what do the mountains of Abyssinia rest?^ 
Height of the highest summits ? The valley of the Nile ? Mountains near the Eed Sea ? 



AFRICAN MOUNTAINS. S3 

system of Africa. They rest on an extensive plateau of from 
6,000 to 8,000 feet in elevation. The highest smiimits are up- 
ward of 15,000 feet above the sea, and are covered with per- 
petual snow. The valley of the Nile, through nearly the whole 
length of its course, is bordered by high rocks or hills of an ele- 
vation which rarely exceeds from five to six hundred feet. Near 
the Red Sea is a succession of mountain groups, some of which 
reach from 6,000 to 9 000 feet in altitude. 

105. A third mountainous system of Africa extends along the 
western coast, between the parallels of 14° of north and 18° of 
south latitude. Those which lie in an east and west direction, 
north of the Gulf of Guinea, are known by the name of the Kong 
Mountains ; their general height is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 
The Peak of Cameroons, near the coast of the Bight of Biafra, 
i;; a detached mountain mass, 13,000 feet in height. In the ad- 
joining island of Fernando Po, Clarence Peak rises to 10,655 
feet. The extreme unhealthfulness of the climate, combined 
with other causes, has prevented any thing like a full survey of 
even the coast regions of Africa, while the vast interior is al- 
most entirely unknown. It is probable that extensive elevations 
may yet be discovered in the central part. 

106. A fourth series of mountain chains extends along the 
eastern coast of Africa, though lying generally at a considerable 
distance inland. But very little is known respecting this range. 
It is supposed to form the border of a great mterior table-land. 
Mount Kilimandjaro, in latitude 4° south, was discovered by a 
missionary in 1849 ; its summit is covered with perpetual snow, 
whence its elevation is assumed to be not less than 20,000 feet. 
Mount Kenia, a volcano, situated a little south of the equator, is 
supposed to have about the same elevation. 

107. In South Africa is a mountain chain which runs in a gen- 
eral direction of east and west, called the Nieuveldt Mountains. 
The highest portions are above 10,000 feet in height. The 
Table Mountain, in the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope, 
is a flat-topped summit, 3,582 feet above the level of the sea. 

Questions.— 106. What is a third mountain system ? The Kong Mountains ? The Peak 
of Cameroons ? Clarence Peak ? 106. A fourth series of mountain chains ? What is sup- 
posed respecting it ? Mount Kilimandjaro? Mount Kenia? 107. What mountain chain 
in South Africa? Greatest elevation ? The Table Mountain ? 



34: UPLAND PLAINS, OK TABLE-LANDS. 

LESSON IX. 

UPLAND PLAINS, OR TABLE-LANDS. 

108. Upland plains, sometimes called table-lands, or plateaus, 
are extensive tracts whose general level is considerably elevated 
above that of the sea. They are commonly skirted by mountain 
ranges, which in some cases descend abruptly into the surround- 
ing plains. Some of these elevated plains support upon their 
surface large mountain ranges, which, although of inconsiderable 
height above the plateau, are yet of great elevation above the 
level of the sea. Table-lands vary in height from 2,000 to 
15,000 feet. 

109. The most extensive table-lands of North America are 
those situated in Mexico. They embrace the plateau of Anahuac, 
and extend from about the 42d parallel southward to the penin- 
sula of Tehuantepec. This vast highland consists of a series 
of plains of different elevations : the highest part of the plain of 
Toluca, upon which the city of Mexico stands, is 9,000 feet 
above the level of the sea : farther to the southeast are the pla- 
teaus of Guatemala and Honduras, which exceed 6,000 feet. 

110. The plateau of Chihuahua (to the northward of the 24th 
parallel) varies from 4,000 to 6,000 feet in height, the southern 
portion being the more elevated. It is generally level, and a 
great part of it desert : this tract contains many dry salt-lakes, 
and most of the rivers which cross it terminate on the table-land 
without finding any outlet to the coast. The plain of Anahuac 
IS more generally fertile, though arid in many parts. 

111. Along the base of the Rocky Mountains a succession of 
barren plains extends eastward, for a distance of 400 miles, to- 
ward the valley of the Mississippi. Through these regions the 
Red, Arkansas, and other rivers flow in channels considerably 

Questions. — 108. What are upland plains, table-lands, or plateaus? How commonly 
Bkirted? Mountain ranges supported by them ? Ileifi^ht of table-lands? 109. Table-lands 
of North America ? What large plateaus do they embrace, and where do they extend ? Of 
wli;it does this vast highland consist ? Elevation of the plain of Toluca ? Of the plateaus 
of Guatemala and Honduras ? 110. Describe the plateau of Chihuahua. What is said 
of its lakes and rivers ? The plain of Anahuac ? 111. Plains east of the Eocky Mountains ? 
Between the Eocky Mountains and the Pacific? 



UPLAND PLAINS.. OB TABLE-LANDS. 35 

below the general surface. The country between the Rocky 
Mountains and the Pacific consists, for the most part, of high 
plateaus and mountain-terraces, including the Great Basin or 
plateau of Utah, with an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. 

112. The northern regions of North America are characterized 
by highlands, though of no very considerable elevations (79) 
The severity of the climate has prevented any thing like a full 
exploration, and they will long remain, as they are at present, 
inhabited only by a hardy race of savages. 

113. South America is remarkable for containing some of the 
most elevated plains in the world. That which surrounds Lake 
Titicaca is 12,700 feet above the level of the sea, and is surround- 
ed by the loftiest summits of the Andes. The plain of Antisana, 
under the equator, surrounds the cone of a mountain by the same 
name, which is covered with eternal snow, and seems like an islet 
in its midst. This plain is 13,451 feet high, and contains the 
hamlet of Antisana, which lies at the foot of the cone, being one 
of the highest spots inhabited by man. 

114. The most extensive table-land of Europe is that of Spain. 
This peninsula consists chiefly of an elevated tract which reaches 
on its north side to a height of 3,000 feet, and on its south to 
about 2,000 feet. Madrid, the capital, has an elevation of 2,170 
feet. The plateau of Bavaria, in central Europe, reaches a height 
of 2,000 feet ; and the southwest portion of the Scandinavian 
peninsula constitutes a plateau of moderate elevation. There are 
several small plateaus, such as the plateau of the Valdai, the 
plateau of Finland, etc. 

115. Asia contains the most widely extended system of table- 
lands on the globe. Between the Himalaya Mountains on the 
south, and the Altai Mountains on the north, extends the vast 
central plateau, having an elevation of from 3,000 to 12,000 feet 
above the sea-level. In the south, the plain of Tibet attains the 

Questions. — 112. Highlands in the northern part of North America? 11.3. For what is 
South America remarkable ? What is said of the plain which surrounds Lake Titicaca ? 
The plain of Antisana ? Hamlet of Antisana ? 114. The most extensive table-land of Eu- 
rope ? It3 elevation on the north and south ? Elevation of Madrid ? The plateau of 
Bavaria ? Other plateaus ? 115. Plateaus of Asia ? Describe the situation of the vast 
central plateau ? Its elevation ? The plain of Tibet ? The great desert of Shamo ? Pla- 
teaus of southwestern Asia ? Plateau of the Deccan ? 



36 NORTH AMERICAN PLAINSo 

remarkable height of 12,000 feet. Farther north is the great 
desert of Shamo, or Gobi, which has an elevation of from 4,000 
to 5,000 feeto Nearly the whole of southwestern Asia is ele- 
vated into table-lands, among which are the plateau of Iran, the 
plateau of Asia Minor, and the plateau of Arabia. These pla- 
teaus have an elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The pla- 
teau of the Deccan forms the southern portion of Hindoostan, 
and has an elevation of about 2,000 feet. 

116. The Sahara (or Great Desert) of Africa, forms a plateau 
of moderate elevation, probably not more in general than from 
1,000 to 1,500 feet above the sea, though particular portions of 
it reach the height of 2,000 feet- It is supposed a vast table- 
land stretches from the 5th or 6th parallel of north latitude to the 
neighborhood of Cape Colony^ This region is probably bordered 
on the north by the supposed Mountains of the Moon. 



LESSON X. 

LOWLAND PLAINSo 

117. Lowland plains are distinguished from plateaus by be- 
ing only slightly elevated above the sea-leveL In some cases 
they are considerably below it, as, for examples, the regions around 
the Caspian Sea and the sea of Aral. They embrace the most 
fertile regions of the globe, and being commonly traversed by 
navigable rivers, affording facilities for inland commerce and 
communication, they constitute the principal abodes of man, and 
the seats of industry and wealth. 

118. North American Plains. — The central portion of 
North America, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic 
Ocean, forms one immense plain, estimated to possess over two 
and a quarter millions of square miles, or nearly one third of the 
area of the entire continent. A rising ground divides it into a 

Questions.— n&. Sahara? Table-land of South Africa? 117. How are lowland plains 
distinguished from plateaus ? In what cases are they below the sea-level ? What do they 
embrace ? 118. What is the situation and extent of the great central plain of North Amer- 
ica ? How divided ? 



NORTH AMERICAN PLAINS. 37 

northern and southern slope — the former being drained by the 
waters which flow into Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Ocean, and 
the latter by streams tributary to the Gulf of Mexico. 

119, This plain is bounded on the east by the Apalachian sys- 
tem, and on the west by the highlands which form the eastern 
base of the Rocky Mountains. Its western limit, south of the 
55th parallel north, is nearly along the 101st meridian; above 
that parallel it pursues a northwest direction to the mouth of the 
Mackenzie's River, in latitude 135o west. 

120, The only considerable elevations throughout this im- 
mense extent are the Ozark Hills in the south, and a plateau of 
moderate height to the north and west of Lake Superior, The 
eastern parts of the plain, toward the base of the Alleghany 
Mountains and the shores of Hudson's Bay, are generally wood- 
ed, and diversified by hills of trifling elevation. The middle 
parts, embracing the valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri, and 
the intervening tracts as far as the upper portions of the Mac- 
kenzie, are level and grassy regions, caXied prairies. 

121, Prairies may be arranged into three kinds : 

(1.) The Bushy Prairies. — These usually contain springs, and are covered 
•with grass, shrubs, grape-vines, and varieties of flowers. 




Prairie Scene 



Questions.— 119. Its boundary on the east and west? Its western limit? 120. Eleva- 
tions? The eastern parts? The middle parts? 121. Into how many kinds may prairies 
be ranged ? Describe the Bushy Prairies,— the Dry, or EoUing Prairies,— the Moist, o* 
Wet Prairies. 



38 SOUTH AMEKIGAN PLAINS. 

(2.) The Dry or Rolling Prairies, so called from the absence of swamps 
or pools, and on account of their wavy surface. The vegetation consists 
principally of grass, weeds, and flowers, which grow with great luxuriance. 
Over these prairies the American buffaloes roam, in herds of from 40,000 to 
50,000. 

(3.) The Moist or Wet Prairies, the smallest division, abound in pools 
without issue, left by the floods of the rainy seasons. They are covered with 
a rich vegetation of tall rank grass. 

122. Along the Atlantic coast, between the base of the Apa- 
lachian Mountains and the sea, stretches a plain, or a compara- 
tively level region, narrow in its northern portion, but increasing 
to a width of about 250 miles toward its southern limits, as the 
mountains recede from the coast. Extensive swamps line the 
coast in several places, and the soil near the sea-shore is fre- 
quently sterile ; but farther inland the country improves, and 
contains many fertile tracts. The peninsula of Florida, which 
belongs to this region, is low and flat, and a large portion of it 
covered with swamps. 

123. South American Plains. — A great central plain stretch- 
es through the whole length of South America. It is divided 
into three principal portions — the plain of the Orinoco, the plain 
of the Amazon, and the plain of the Rio de la Plata, — deriving 
their names from the three principal rivers by which they are 
respectively drained. These divisions are distinguished by the 
names of llanos, selvas, and pampas. 

124. The Llanos, or Level Fields, are those vast plains in 
Venezuela and New Granada which extend to the north and 
west from the Orinoco. They have a very level surface, and so 
gently do they slope toward the sea, that a slight rise in the 
Orinoco reverses the current of the tributary streams. At the 
close of the rainy season the llanos are covered with luxuriant 
grass, and form rich pasture grounds ; but during the dry months 
which succeed, the vegetation is entirely destroyed, and the 
parched ground opens in deep and wide crevices, giving the 
whole country the aspect of desolation and sterility. 

Questions. — 122. Describe the plain of the Atlantic coast. The peninsula of Florida. 
123. Into how many portions is the great central plain of South America divided ? By 
what names are they distinguished? 124. "Where are the llanos situated? What is said 
of their level surface ? How covered during the rainy season ? Their aspect during the 
dry season ? 



SOUTH AMERICAN PLAINS. 



3d 




Llano of South. Araexica. 

125. The Selvas, or Forest Plains, extend over the lower por- 
tion of the basin of the Amazon, and within the limits to which 
the annual inundations of that river and its tributaries extend. 
A large part of this country is covered with dense forests. 

126. Mrs. Somerville thus describes the selvas of South 
America : 

" The soil, enriched for ages by the spoils of the forest, consists of the 
richest mold. The heat is suffocating in the deep and dark recesses of these 
primeval woods, where not a breath of air penetrates, and where, after be- 
ing drenched by the periodical rains, the damp is so excessive that a blue 
mist rises in the early morning among the huge stems of the trees, and en- 
velops the entangled creepers stretching from bough to bough. A death- 
like stillness prevails from sunrise to sunset ; then the thousands of animals 
that inhabit these forests join in one loud discordant roar, not continuous, 
but in bursts. The beasts seem to be periodically and unanimously roused 
by some unknown impulse, till the forest rings in universal uproar. Pro- 
found silence prevails at midnight, which is broken at the dawn of morning 
by another general roar of the wild chorus. Nightingales, too, have their 
fits of silence and song ; after a pause they 

' all burst forth in choral minstrelsy, 

As if some sudden gale had swept at once 
A hundred airy harps.' — Coleeedgs." 



Questions— 125. Situation of the Selvas ? How covered ? Mrs. Somerville's description 
of the selvaa of South America? 



^ GLACIERS* 

127. The Pampas, or Flats, are immense level plains, va- 
riously covered with long, coarse grass, mixed with wild oats, 
clover, and other herbage. The country between the 32d and 
39th parallels consists of swampy tracts, overgrown with canes 
and tall reeds, and in other districts covered with gigantic thistles, 
which grow to the height of eight feet, and so thick as literally 
to render the country impassable. During nine months of the 
year the thistles are here the predominant (and almost the only) 
feature of the vegetable kingdom, but with the heats of the sum- 
mer they become burned up, and their tall leafless stems are 
leveled to the, ground by the powerful blast of the pampero, or 
southwest wind, from the snowy ranges of the Andes, after which 
the earth is covered for a brief time with herbage. This is des- 
tined, with the return of spring, again to give way to the stronger 
vegetation, which it had succeeded, and for a time supplanted. 

128. The plain which extends from the banks of the Negro 
(latitude 39° south) to the southern extremity of the continent is 
for the most part barren ; in some places it is covered with sand, 
mixed with stones and gravel. It contains no trees, but a scanty 
vegetation of shrubs and herbage is found in a few hollows and 



LESSON XL 

GLACIERS. 

129. A GLACiERf is a field or immense mass of ice formed 
in deep, but elevated valleys, or on the sides of mountains. Gla- 
ciers occur very extensively among the Alps, the Pyrenees, and 
the mountains of Norway. They are also found on the coast 
of Greenland, and among the Andes of Patagonia. They occur, 

Questions. — 127. What are the Pampas? Describe the country between the 32d and 
S9th parallels. 128. Describe the plain which extends to the south of the Negro. 129. 
What is a glacier ? Where do glaciers occur extensively ? Number of the glaciers along 
the central part of the Alps ? Their extent ? Number of square miles covered by the gla- 
ciers of Switzerland ? 

* Hughes' Manual of Georgraphy. 

t Glacibk is from the Latin glades, ice. The French word glaciere, from glace, signi- 
fies an ice-house. 



GLACIERS. 



41 




however, in the greatest numbers and to the greatest extent in 

the mountains of Switzerland. Along the central part of the 

Alps, from Mont Blanc 

to the frontiers of Tyrol, 

there are reckoned more „^^„„,„„^. , ^,„,, ,. 

than 400 glaciers, some l|||i||l||to^^ » k"* smBi 

of them only 3 miles in |[-P™""™^ ^ 

length, while others are 'ilPHilliitKi-'' 

from 18 to 21 miles long, 

from 1 to 2j: miles wide, 

and from 100 to 600 feet r||| 

thick. Altogether the gla- i\!i:'*^^i "If.^?^-^^^^^^^ 
ciers. of Switzerland are .^^^^^^^^mXZ^^"^' ^"~ 
estimated to cover a sur- .^^^^^^^^g^.«>^ 
face of upward of 1,000 
square miles, and form a 

r • r ±-\ • View of a Glacier 

sea ot ice irom the in- 
exhaustible reservoirs of which some of the principal European 
rivers are supplied 

130. Glaciers are not composed of solid ice, but consist of a 
mixture of ice, snow, and water. They owe their origin to the 
accumulation of the snow which falls from the sides of the 
mountains, and becomes only partially melted during the short 
summer of these elevated regions. 

131. It is a remarkable fact respecting glaciers that they have 
an onward flow like rivers. The movement is very slow, not 
amounting usually to more than a foot in twenty-four hours. 
Like that of rivers, it is most rapid in the center, and slower at 
the sides and bottom on account of friction. M. Agassiz obtain- 
ed the following results, in 1841 and 1842, upon this point : 

Annual Motion. 
Finster Aar. — Stake nearest the center of the glacier . . . 269 feet. 

" Stake nearest the side of the glacier 160 " 

Lauter Aar. — Stake nearest the center 245 " 

" Stake nearest the side 125 " 

132. The rate of motion depends upon the seasons ; thawing 

Quefitio7i8. — 130. Of what do glaciers consist? Their origin? 131. Eemarkable fact 
jespecting glaciers ? Eate of movement ? In what part most rapid ? Kesults obtained by 
Agassiz? 132. Upon what does the rate of motion depend? State the movement of the 
Mer de Glace at diflFerent seasons. 



4:2 GLACIERS. 

weather, and a wet state of the ice, conducing to its advance- 
ment, while cold, whether sudden or prolonged, checks its pro- 
gress. The ice near the shore of the Mer de Glace (Sea of Ice), 
near Chamouni, was found to moye as follows : 

From June 29 to Sept. 28 132 feet. 

" Sept. 28 to Dec. 12 70 " 

" Dec. 12 to Feb. 17 76 " 

" Feb. 17 to April 4 66 " ^ 

" April 4 to Jime 8 88 " 

133. Glaciers, originating in the regions of eternal frost, de- 
scend far below the line of perpetual snow. The lowest limit 
to which perpetual snow extends downward in the Swiss Alps 
is about 8,500 feet above the level of the sea. The lower gla- 
cier of the Aar descends more than 1,500 feet below the snow- 
line, while others descend 4,000 or 5,000 below the region of 
perpetual snow and ice, as, for examples, the glaciers of the 
Upper and Lower Grindelwald. 

134. The appearance of glaciers is thus described by Lyell : 

" When they descend steep slopes and precipices, or are forced through 
narrow gorges, the ice is broken up, and assumes the most fantastic and 
picturesque forms, with lofty peaks and pinnacles, projecting above the gen- 
eral level. These snow-white masses are often relieved by a dark back- 
ground of pines, as in the vaUey of Chamouni ; and are not only surrounded 
with abundance of the wild rhododendron in full flower, but encroach still 
lower into the region of cultivation, and trespass on fields where the tobacco- 
plant is flourishing by the side of the peasant's hut." 

135. Snow mountains and glaciers, though devoid of vegeta- 
tion in the upper regions, and presenting a picture of desolation 
on a scale of magnificence which makes it awful, are yet a strik- 
ing instance of the truth that nothing was made in vain. 

" Herds of chamois are at home amid the frozen heights of the Alps; the 
Thibetian cow can only bear the climate of the valleys in winter ; nor can 
man pronounce such districts barren, though cheerless in appearance, and 
never intended for his residence. They minister to his comfort, happiness, 
and even luxury, as the inexhaustible sources of those streams, which in 
summer, when other waters are evaporated and dried up, roll on through 
the plains, fountains of fertility and plenty. The Rhone, Ehine, Po, Reuss, 

Questions. — 133. Do glaciers descend below the limit of perpetual snow ? What is the 
lowest limit of perpetual snow on the Alps ? To what distance below this line are glaciers 
known to descend? 134. Appearance of glaciers as described by Lyell ? 135. What re- 
mark is made of snow mountains and glaciers ? How illustrated ? 



SNOW MOUNTAINS AND AVALANCHES. 43 

Ticino, Aar, Adige, Inn, and Drave, respectively flowing to the German 
Ocean, Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Black seas, are fed from the snows 
and glaciers of the Alps." — Rev. Thomas Milner. 



LESSON XII. 

SNOW MOUNTAINS AND AVALANCHES. 

136. The polar regions are covered with fields of perpetual 
ice aad snow. In the temperate and torrid zones everlasting 
frosts prevail only on the high lands. The elevation at which 
perpetyal snow begins in these zones varies with the latitude. It 
is 16,000 feet from the level of the sea at the equator; 9,000 
feet near latitude 45° ; 5,000 feet at latitude 60° ; 1,000 feet at 
latitude 70° ; and about latitude 80° the line of perpetual snow 
comes down to the sea-level 

137. The principal localities of permanent snow in the torrid 
and temperate zones are Iceland, Norway, the Alps, and Pyre- 
nees, in Europe ; the Caucasus, Himalaya, Kuen4un, and Altai 
mountains, in Asia ; the range of the Greater Atlas, m Africa ; 
and the Andes, in America. The mountains of South Australia, 
and Mount Egmont, in New Zealand, are snow mountains. The 
Himalaya derives its name, "the dwellmg of snow," from the 
vast surface occupied by it. 

138. The summits of these lofty mountains accumulate enor- 
mous masses of snow, which are often precipitated into the sur- 
rounding valleys, producing terrible disasters. These descend- 
ing bodies increase in volume by the dislodgment of other masses, 
and fall with tremendous velocity and violence, uprooting trees, 
overwhelming houses and villages, and stopping the flow of 
streams and rivers. 

139. Such falls are very common in Switzerland, where they 

Questions.— IdQ. Polar regions how covered ? Where only do everlasting frosts prevail in 
the temperate and torrid zones ? Elevation at which perpetual snow begins at the equator ? 
At the 45° ? 60° ? 70° ? Snow-line at the 80° ? 137. Principal localities of permanent 
snow in the torrid and temperate zones? 138. Accumulation of snow masses ? Where 
precipitated? Destructive effects? 139. Where are such falls very common ? What are 
they called in Switzerland ? In Norway ? What four kinds are noticed ? 



4:4 SNOW MOUNTAINS AND AVALANCHES. 

are called avalanches* or lavanges. In Norway they are called 
the snee-fond. Four kinds are noticed, drift, sliding, creeping, 
and ice avalanches. 

140. (1.) A drift avalanche is the fall of the drifts and other 
accumulations of snow from the upper regions. During calm 
weather snow collects in enormous volumes on the declivities, 
where it remains until the wind forces it from its resting-place, 
and it rushes down into the lower regions. In its progress it 
forces off other masses, which augment its size, and becoming 
thus enlarged, it descends with constantly accelerated energy, 
occasioning as much damage by the whirlwind rush of the air, 
as by the direct attack of the snow. 

141. (2.) A sliding avalanche is a descent of snow jnasses 
which have become loosened by the heat of the earth. Ava- 
lanches of this class occur in spring, and commonly origmate in 
the middle region of mountains. (3.) Creeping avalanches orig- 
inate in a similar manner, but on less steep declivities. (4.) Ice 
avalanches are parts of a glacier, detached by the summer heat, 
or broken off by their own weight, on the extremity projecting 
over the edge of a precipice. 

142. The following interesting description of avalanches is 
by the Rev. Thomas Milner : 

" On descending the Sheideck into the valley of Grindelwald, canton of 
Berne, the extraordinary effects of an ice avalanche that fell some years 
ago are observable. The ground is entirely cleared ; the trees have been 
swept away like reeds ; an area of at least a mile and a half square is strewn 
with stones and stumps ; a fine forest growing on each side of the area, 
which was untouched by the Mling mass. 

143. "A similar avalanche descended near the village of Kanda, in one 
of the valleys of the Valais canton, in 1819. It covered with ice, rubbish, 
and fragments of rock an area of 2,400 feet in length, by 1,000 feet wide, 
to the depth of 150 feet. It fell on an uninhabited spot, but the adjoining 
village was destroyed by the tremendous rush of the compressed air conse- 
quent upon the descent of such an enormous mass, about 9,000 feet. Beams 
of houses were carried nearly a mile into the forest, and the massive stone 
steeple of the church was snapped asunder. 

144. " In the year 1749, a creeping avalanche of snow descended in the 



Questionsi.-Ua. Describe the drift avalanches. 141. The sliding avalanches,— the creep- 
.ing avalanches, — the ice avalanches. 

* Avalanche, from the French amUv, to descend. 



VOLCANOES. 45 

valley of Tawich, in the canton of the Grisons, and buried the whole village 
of Bueras, pushing it at the same time from its site. The catastrophe oc- 
curred in the night, and so stealthily, that it was unperceived by the inhab- 
itants, who, on awaking in the morning, were surprised at the prolonged 
darkness. Sixty out of a hundred persons were dug out alive, obtaining a 
sufficient supply of air through the interstices of the snow to sustain life. 

145. " In 1838 the secluded hospice of the Grimsel was the scene of a re- 
markable preservation. The hospice, remote from any human habitation, 
well known to pilgrims in the Oberland, is only tenanted by a single servant 
with provisions and dogs, from November to March. In the latter month, 
a great storm occurred, and the snow fell incessantly for four days. While 
occupied with his art of wood-carving, the solitary was alarmed by a myste- 
rious sound in the evening, like the cry of a human being in distress ; but no 
benighted wayfarer appeared on sallying forth with his dog. The sound re- 
curred again. It was one of those signals which frequently precede a grand 
catastrophe in the Alps — the noise of a mass disturbed and quivering. Sud- 
denly the impression seized him to retreat into the hospice. He went ac- 
cordingly into an inner room, and began to pray, when the avalanche came 
thundering down, crushing every apartment but the one which was then 
sanctified by prayer. Its inmate with his dog succeeded in working his way 
through the snow, and reached Meyringen in safety, firmly regarding his 
preservation as an answer to his prayer ; and to every pious mind it will 
verify the sacred declaration, ' He that dwelleth in the secret place of the 
Most High shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty.' " 



LESSON XIII. 

VOLCANOES. 

146. The term Volcano (derived from Vulcanus, the name 
the ancient Romans gave to their imaginary god of fire) is ap- 
plied to those mountains which send forth, from their summits 
or sides, flame, smoke, ashes, and streams of melted matter 
called lava : it is also applied to mountains having eruptions of 
mud only, and which are hence called Mud Volcanoes. 

147. Volcanoes are generally of a conical shape, with a hol- 
low at their summit, called the crater, or cup, the sides of which 
are sometimes entire, like the walls of a circus, but more com- 



Questions. — ^146. From What is the term volcano derived ? To what is it applied ? 147. 
General shape of volcanoes ? What is the opening at the summit called ? Its appearance ? 
The general appearance of the bottom or floor of craters ? 



46 VOLCANOES. 

monly rent. The bottom or floor of craters usually presents a 
series of ashy cones, with cracks and fissures, through which 
jets of smoke, steam, and flame issue at the most tranquil in- 
tervals. 




Volcano of OrizalDa. 

148. -Volcanoes are either continuously active, or intermittent, 
or extinct. Of the former class is Stromboli, in the Mediter- 
ranean — a comparatively lowly mound, 2,175 feet high. It has 
been uninterruptedly active from the dawn of authentic history, 
a permanent fiery beacon to the sailors of the adjoining seas, but 
very rarely violent. Etna, Vesuvius, and Cotopaxi have varying 
intervals of rest, in some instances amounting to centuries. 
Extinct volcanoes are those whose activity has for ages been 
suspended. A volcano of this class may be found on the isle 
of Palma, one of the Canaries. 

149. An explosion commonly begins by a dense volume of 
smoke issuing from the crater, mixed with aqueous vapor and 
gases ; hen masses of rock and melted matter are thrown out 
with great violence, after which lava begins to flow, and the 
whole terminates with a shower of ashes from the crater. The 



Qiiestions. — 148. The throe states of volcanoes? Stromboli ? Examples of intermittent 
volcanoes? What are extinct volcanoes? Instance. 149. How does an explosion com- 
monly begin ? What substances follow ? What finally succeeds ? Which of the ejected 
substances is often the most destructive ? 



VOLCANIC REGIONS. 47 

as"hes are often the njost destructive, as will be seen by the ac- 
counts of volcanoes in a succeeding lesson. 

150. There are supposed to be about 300 volcanoes on the 
earth, about two thirds of which are situated in islands, the re- 
mainder being confined to the continents. Their distribution is 
stated in the following table : 

On Continents. In Islands. Total. 

Europe 4 20 24 

Asia 17 29 46 

Africa 2 9 11 

America 86 28 114 

Oceanica — 108 108 

109 194 303 



LESSON XIV. 

VOLCANIC REGIONS.* ^ 

151. Volcanic Regions of the Andes. — The Andes of 
South America embrace three extensive volcanic regions. The 
first is known as the Chilean range, the second as the Peruvian, 
and the third as the volcanic region of Quito. These regions 
are separated by extensive tracts, in which no volcanic action 
has been known to occur since the discovery of America. 

152. The volcanic range of Chile embraces the most southern 
line of active vents. It extends from latitude 43° 28' south, or 
from a point on a range with the island of Chiloe to Coquimbo, 
in latitude 30° south — a distance of nearly fourteen degrees of 
latitude. This region is remarkable for containing the highest 
known volcano in the world, that of Aconcagua (23,944 feet). 
To the north is a space of more than eight degrees of latitude, 
in which no recent volcanic eruptions have been observed. 

Question.'^. — 150. Number of volcanoes ? How many of these are situated in islands ? 
On continents ? What number belongs to Europe ? To Asia ? To Africa ? To America ? 
To Oceanica ? 151. Number of volcanic regions in the Andes ? By what names known? 
How are these regions separated ? 152. Volcanic range of Chile ? Between what parallels 
does it extend ? For what remarkable ? 



* The description of the volcanic regions contained in this lesson is derived principally 
from " LyeJl's Principles of Geology." 



48 VOLCANIC KEGIONS. 

153. Tho Peruvian line of volcanoes, the next in order, ex- 
tends a distance of about six degrees, from latitude 21° south to 
latitude 15° south. The volcano of Arequipa is situated in this 
district, with an elevation of more than 20,000 feet. Between 
the Peruvian volcanoes and {hose of Quito another space inter- 
venes, of no less than fourteen degrees of latitude, said to be free 
from volcanic action so far as yet known. 

154. The volcanoes of Quito begin about 100 geographical 
miles south of the equator, and continue for about 130 miles 
north of the line. The most elevated of their summits are those 
of Cotopaxi and Antisana, — the former having an altitude of 
18,858 feet, and the latter 19,126 feet. To the north o if the 
volcanic region of Quito there occurs another undisturbed in- 
terval of more than six degrees, after which we arrive at the 
volcanoes of Guatemala, in Central America, north of the Isth- 
mus of Panama. 

155. The volcanoes of South America rise in many instances 
to vast elevations above the level of the sea, several examples 
of which have been previously mentioned. Those of Peru rise 
from a lofty platform to elevations varying from 17,000 to 20,000 
feet. Of those which have recently been in a state of activity, 
the most lofty is Cotopaxi : its eruptions have been more fre- 
quent and destructive than those of any other mountain. It is a 
perfect cone, usually covered with an enormous bed of snow, 
which has, however, been sometimes melted suddenly by an 
eruption; as in January, 1803, for example, when the snows 
were dissolved in one night. 

156. Frequent deluges are caused in the Andes by the sudden 
melting of great masses of snow, and by the rending open, dur- 
ing earthquakes, of subterranean cavities filled with water. In 
these inundations fine volcanic sand, loose stones, and other ma- 
terials, which the water meets with in its descent, are swept 
away, and a vast quantity of mud, called " moya," is thus formed 
and carried down into the lower regions. In 1797, valleys, a 

Questions.— 15S. Situation and extent of the Peruvian line of volcanoes ? Yolcano of Are- 
quipa ? What non-volcanic region to the north ? 154. Situation and extent of the volcanof 3 
of Quito? Most elevated summits? What region extends farther north? 155. What is 
sai<l of the vast elevations of the South American volcanoes? Of those of Peru? What 
is said of Cotopaxi ? 156. Frequent deluges, bow caused ? Moya ? Illustration ? 



VOLCANIC KEGIONS. 



49 



thousand feet wide, surrounding Tunguragua, in Quito, were filled 
with mud from this source to a depth of six hundred feet. 

157. Volcanoes of North America. — Proceeding north 
from the Isthmus of Panama, we find extensive volcanoes scat- 
tered through Central America and Mexico. Coseguina, in the 
former country, was in eruption in 1835, and some of its ashes 
fell at Truxillo, on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. The 
amount of ashes thrown out by this eruption was so great, that 
twenty-four miles to the southward they covered the ground to 
the depth of three yards and a half, destroying the woods and 
dwellings. Thousands of cattle perished, and the streams were 
strewed with dead fish. 




158. Of the volcanoes of Mexico are 

Tuxtla, Orizaba, Popocatepetl, JoruUo, 
and Colima, Si.uated on a line extending 
from west to east, near the parallel of 19° north latitude. If this 
line be prolonged in a westerly direction, it cuts the volcanic 



Quefitionx.—Ab'l. Volcanoes north of the Isthmus of Panama? Coseguina? Amount 
of ashps thrown out ? 158. V<:)lcanops in Mexico ? How situated ? Volcanoes in the pen- 
insula of California? What volcano reported to have been found farther north ? 

3 



50 



VOLCANIC EEGIONS. 



group of .islands called the Isles of Revillagigedo. There are 
said to be three, or, according to some, five volcanoes in the pen- 
insula of California ; and a volcano is reported to have been in 
eruption near the mouth of the Columbia River. 

159. Of the West Indian Islands, the range known as the 
Lesser Antilles is extensively volcanic. It comprises two par- 
allel series : the one to the west, which are all volcanic, and 
which rise to the height of several thousand feet ; the other to the 
east, for the most part composed of calcareous rocks, and very- 
low. In the former, or volcanic series, are Grenada, St. Vin- 
cent, St. Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Guadaloupe, Montserrat, 
Nevis, and St. Eustace. In the calcareous chain are Tobago, 
Barbadoes, St. Bartholemew, and St. Martin. The most consider- 
able eruptions of modern times have been those of St. Vincent. 

160. The volcanic regions of the continental parts of America 
are confined to the western coast, where a line of volcanoes may 
be traced from the coast opposite the island of Chiloe to Mexico, 
or perhaps to the mouth of the Columbia River. There seems 
to be no indication of volcanoes in Buenos Ayres, Brazil, and 
the United States, though violent earthquakes have occurred in 
the latter country, as that which convulsed the valley of the Mis- 
sissippi, at New Madrid, in 1812. 

161. Volcanic Region from the Aleutian Isles to the 
Moluccas and Isles of Sunda — An extensive line of volcanoes 
ranges through the Pacific, parallel with, and at no great distance 
:from, the eastern Asiatic coast. It commences in the north with 
the Aleutian Isles, and extends, first in a westerly direction for 
nearly 200 geographical miles, and then southward, with few in- 
terruptions, throughout a space of between sixty and seventy de- 
grees of latitude to the Moluccas. At this point it sends off a 
branch to the southeast, while the principal train continues 
westerly through Sumbawa and Java to Sumatra, and thence in 
a northwesterly direction to the Bay of Bengal. 



Questions.— 159. What volcanic range in the West Indian Islands? Describe the more 
westerly of the two parallel series. The other. What islands belong to the former series? 
To the other ? 160. To what regions are the volcanoes of the continental part of America 
confined? Where may they be traced? In which countries are there no traces of volca- 
noes? 161. Volcanic range through the Pacific? Where does it commence? Give its 
general course. Its course from the Moluccas? 



VOLCANIC REGIONS. 51 

162. It is supposed the northern extremity of this extensive 
volcanic region is m the borders of Cook's Inlet, northeast of the 
peninsula of Alaska, where one volcano, in about the sixtieth 
degree of latitude, is said to be 14,000 feet high. Alaska con- 
tains cones of vast height, which have been seen in eruption, 
and which are covered for two thirds of their height downward 
with perpetual snow. 

163. From Alaska the line is continued through the Aleutian, 
or Fox Islands, to Kamtchatka. On this peninsula are many 
active volcanoes, which, in some eruptions, have scattered ashes 
to immense distances. Of these, the largest is Klutschen, lati- 
tude 56° north, which rises at once from the sea to the prodig- 
ious height of 15,000 feet. 

164. The Kurile chain of islands constitutes the prolongation 
of this range, which is continued through Jesso, Niphon, Loo- 
Choo, and Formosa to the Philippine Islands and the Moluccas. 

165. Java is said to contain thirty-eight considerable volcanoes, 
some of which are more than 10,000 feet high. They are re- 
markable for the quantity of sulpJhi«r and sulphurous vapors which 
they discharge. They rarely emit lava, but rivers of mud issue 
from them in great quantities. There are numerous extinct cra- 
ters on the island of Java filled with water strongly impregnated 
with sulphuric acid, and the streams flowing from them will 
support no living creature. 

166. The Indian and Pacific oceans contain a great number 
of volcanic islands, interspersed with those of coral formation. 
The former are lofty, and present evidence that they have been 
undergoing upheaval in modern times ; the latter are very low, 
consisting of reefs of coral, usually with lagoons, or lakes, in 
their centers. 

167. Volcanic Regions of the Mediterranean. — Of the 



-162. Situation of the northern extremity of this volcanic region ? What of 
the volcanoes of Alaslia? 163. Course of the volcanic line from Alaska? Volcanoes of 
Kamtchatka? Klutschen? 164. Through what chain of islands is the range prolonged? 
Through what other islands is the chain continued ? 165. Number of volcanoes in Java? 
For what are they remarkable ? Ejected matter ? Extinct craters ? 166. Extent of volca- 
noes in the Indian and Pacific oceans? How interspersed? Character of the volcanic 
islands of the coral islands? 167. Volcanic regions of the Mediterranean? Santorin? 
Ionian Isles? Vesuvius and Etna? Through what countries does this volcanic region 
extend on the east ? On the west ? 



52 



VESUVIUS. 



volcanic regions in, or bordering on, the Mediterranean Sea, are 
those of Greece and Italy, with the adjacent islands. In the 
Grecian Archipelago is the island of Santorin, a grand center of 
volcanic action, and the Ionian Isles are continually convulsed. 
Vesuvius and Etna, — the former in southern Italy, and the latter 
in the island of Sicily, — are among the most remarkable volca- 
noes in the world. The volcanic region which traverses the 
northern shore of the Mediterranean is supposed to extend in 
the east through Asia Minor, and the countries bordering on the 
Caspian Sea to Central Asia, and on the west, through the south- 
ern part of Spain and Portugal to the Azores. 



LESSON XV. 

VESUVIUS, ETNA, ETC. 




Crater of Vesuvius in 1829 

168. Vesuvius. — This volcano is situated about six miles from 
Naples, and rises in a pyramidal form from a large plain to an 
elevation of 3,948 feet. It has been subject to many powerful 

QmsUons.— 168. Vesuvius, where situated ? Its form and elevation ? Convulsions? 



VESUVIUS. 53 

convulsions, some of which have produced great devastation in 
the surrounding districts. 

169. The following description of its crater is by an Amer- 
ican* who visited it in 1851 : 

" After passing through thick clouds of steam charged with the suffocat- 
ing sulphurous acid gas which greatly annoyed our lungs, Avhen the wind 
cleared our vision we found ourselves on the narrow rim of the great crater. 

It Avns so narrow that only two persons could walk upon it abreast 

On this narrow rim, we walked on a surface not more than six or eight feet 
wide, witli the terrific crater, 1,000 feet deep, on one side, and the abrupt 
descent of 1,800 feet on the other side, into the valley of Sonima. It was a 
spectacle ti-uly sublime, awfully grand and appalling. The heat below sent 
up, in throes and spasms, dense clouds of steam and sulphurous acid gas, 
which, at short intervals, filled the crater, and all that appeared was a pil- 
lar of a cloud, in which we were often involved and half suflbcated ; we 
stood with arms locked, for then it was unsafe to move until a whirlwind 
swept the crater clear, and we could see into its profound abyss. 

170. " Nothing could be more perfectly formed than this crater. It was 
a magnificent hollow cone, whose nether apex opened into the great world 
of fire below ; still the fire we did not see, although we had the most decisive 
proof of its existence and continued action in the violent ejection of steam 
and gas, filling every few minutes this vast funnel, whose diameter across 
from side to side was probably 1,000 feet; but the dense cloud of steam 
and noxious gas which hovered to leeward over a large portion of the circu- 
lar orifice, rendered it impossible to walk aroimd it, or even to ascertain 
whether a continuity of surface, free from cross fractures and chasms, would 
render it practicable without the most imminent danger." 

171. The earliest recorded eruption of Vesuvius is that which 
happened in the year of our Lord 79, and by which the cities of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed. 

172. History informs us of that sad catastrophe, but the sites of those 
cities had become unknown, and it was not until the last century that 
they were discovered. Herculaneum, which was discovered in 1711, lies five 
miles from Naples, immediately adjacent to the eastern shores of the bay, 
and is still partly covered by the large modern village of Resina. Pompeii, 
discovered in 1748, is situated farther to the southeast, twelve miles distant 
from Naples. A great part of it has been cleared from the ashes under 
which it had so long lain buried, and it exhibits to view the full picture of 

Questions.— 169. Width of the crater's rim ? Its depth ? Clouds of steam ? 170. Form 
of the crater ? Existence of fire ? Diameter of the funnel ? What other facts are men- 
tioned ? 171. Earliest recorded eruption of Vesuvius ? Wiiat cities were destroyed by it ? 
172. Hercuhmeum, when discovered and where situated ? Pompeii, when discovered and 
where situated ? Eemains found ? 



* Professor B. Silliman. 



54 



ETNA. 



what a Roman city was, — temples, theaters, baths, private habitations, the 
shops of the diflferent trades, the implements with which they were carried 
on, and even the materials upon which these were employed. 




Vesuvius. 



173. In the vicinity of Naples there are other evidences of the 
volcanic character of this district. Numerous hot baths abound, 
supplied w^ith steam and M^ater from the vents in the earth. The 
Solfatara is the name of a nearly extinguished volcano, giving 
vent continually to aqueous vapor, together with sulphurous and 
muriatic acid gases, like those which escape from Vesuvius. ' 

174. Etna. — This celebrated volcano is situated on the east- 
ern side of the island of Sicily. It rises near the sea in soli- 
tary grandeur, to the height of nearly eleven thousand feet. Its 
base is almost circular, and is about eighty-seven English miles 
in circumference. Its summit is about thirty miles from the 
town of Catania, a sea-port to the south. 

175. Etna has been longest known to history of any volcano. 
It was known to be in action 480 years B.C. Here, according 
to ancient mythology, the thunderbolts of Jupiter were forged ; 

Questions. — 173. Other evidences of the volcanic character of the district around Naples? 
Hot baths ? The Solfatara ? 174. Where is Etna situated ? Its height ? Form and cir- 
cumference of its base ? 175. Date of its earliest known eruption ? What events did 
mythology connect with the mountain ? Subsequent eruptions ? 



VOLCANOES OF ICELAND. 



5^ 



here, also, was raised a temple to Vulcan, where the fire never 
ceased to burn. From the above-mentioned date, during the 
whole subsequent period, it has been subject to periodical con- 
vulsions, with intervals of repose varying greatly in duration. 

The recorded eruptions of Etna are . . .B. C. 480 — 427, interval 53 years. 

...B.C. 427— 396, " 31 " 
...B.C. 396— 140, " 256 " 
between B. C. 140 — 122, four eruptions. 

B. C. 122— 56, interval 66 years, 
between B. C. 56 & 38, three eruptions. 

B. C. 38— A. D. 40, interval 78 years. 
A.D. 40— 251, " 211 years. 
A.D. 251— 812, " 561 " 
A. D. 812— 1169, " 357 " 

From this period to the present the agitations of Etna have increased in 
frequency and power : 

Twelfth and thirteenth centuries 3 eruptions. 

Fourteenth 2 " 

Fifteenth 4 

Sixteenth 3 

Seventeenth 8 " 

Eighteenth 14 

Nineteenth to 1832 6 

176. The most remarkable eruption of Etna in modem times 
occurred in 1669. It was preceded by an earthquake, which 
leveled to the ground all the houses in Nicolosi, a town situated 
twenty miles distant. A fissure, six feet broad, and of unknown 
depth, opened with a loud crash, and ran to within a mile of the 
summit. A stream of lava flowed down the side of the mount- 
ain, and, after destroying fourteen towns and villages, over- 
whelmed a part of the city of Catania. This mass, at its en- 
tra^fice into the sea, was six hundred yards broad and forty feet 
deep. The solid contents of this immense stream of lava is es- 
timated at 93,838,590 cubic feet. 

177. Volcanoes of Iceland. — Iceland, in the North Atlantic, 
seems to form a volcanic region by itself. From the beginning 
of the twelfth century, there is clear evidence that, during the 
whole period, there has never been an interval of more than forty, 



Questions. — ^1T6. Eraption of 1669 ? How preceded ? Destruction caused ? Amount 
of lava ? 177. Iceland ? Frequency of eruptions ? Energy of volanic action ? Eavages 
of earthquakes? New islands ? 



66 GEYSEES. 

and very rarely one of twenty years, without either an eruption 
or a great earthquake. So intense is the energy of the volcanic 
action in this region, that some eruptions of Hecla have lasted 
six years without ceasing. Earthquakes have often shaken the 
whole island at once, causing great changes in the interior, such 
as the sinking down of hills, the rending of mountains, the de- 
sertion by rivers of their channels, and the appearance ot new 
lakes. New islands have often been thrown up near the coast, 
some of which still exist ; while others have disappeared, either 
by subsidence or the action of the waves.* 

178. The greatest eruption on record proceeded from Skaptar 
Jokul, in Iceland, in 1783. The lava flowed in two nearly oppo- 
site streams, fifty miles in one direction and forty in the other. 
The breadth which one branch attained in the low countries was 
from twelve to fifteen miles, that of the other about seven. The 
ordinary height of both currents was one hundred feet, but in 
narrow defiles it sometimes amounted to six hundred. It has 
been calculated that the mass of lava thrown out during this 
eruption surpassed in magnitude the bulk of Mount Blanc. 

179. The eruption of Skaptar Jokul did not entirely cease till 
the end of two years ; and when the tract was visited eleven 
years afterward, columns of smoke were found still rising from 
parts of the lava. The destruction of life and property was im- 
mense. No less than twenty villages were destroyed, besides 
those inundated by water. More than nine thousand human 
beings — nearly one fifth the entire population — perished, together 
with an immense number of cattle, partly by the depredations of 
the lava, partly by the noxious vapors which impregnated the air, 
and, in part, by the famine caused by showers of ashes through- 
out the island, and the desertion of the coasts by the fish. 

180. Geysers. — The term Geyser is from the Icelandic geysa, 
which signifies to rage, or burst forth impetuously. It is applied 
to the hot springs which occur in a remarkable group of fifty or 

Que,^ions.—VlQ. Eruption of Skaptar Jokul ? Give particulars of the flow of the lava. 
Breadth and depth of the lava currents ? 179. Duration of the eruption? Destruction of 
life and property ? 180. The term Geyser, how derived ? To what applied ? Irregular 
action of geysers ? 

* Sir Charles Lyell. 



EAETHQUAKES. 57 

more in Iceland, about thirty-six miles from Hecla. Geysers 

are not constantly active ; few of them play longer than five or 
six minutes at a time, although sometimes half an hour. The 
grand eruptions are often after intervals of a day or two. 

181. The Great Geyser has a basin at its summit sixty feet in 
diameter, and six or seven deep. At the bottom of the basin 
there is a well or funnel, ten feet wide at the mouth, but gradu- 
ally narrowing to seven or eight, with a perpendicular descent 
of seventy feet. The eruptions are preceded by subterraneous 
noises like the distant firing of cannon, and shakings of the 
earth. The sound then increases and becomes more violent, till 
at length a column of water is thrown up to the height of one or 
two hundred feet. After the water ceases to play, a column of 
steam, rushing up with amazing force and thundering sound, ter- 
minates the eruption * 



LESSON XVI. 

EARTHQUAKES. 

182. Earthquakes appear to be due to the same cause which 
occasions a volcanic eruption, namely, the energy of elastic va- 
pors struggling to find a vent from beneath the surface of the 
earth. They are most common in volcanic districts ; but those at 
a greater distance from volcanoes are more violent, as if the lat- 
ter afforded passage for the eruptive energy, which, at other 
points, cracked and upheaved the surface in efiecting its disen- 
gagement. 

183. The best proof that earthquakes and volcanoes have a 
similar origin is the constancy with which they attend each other. 
A few examples are selected in illustration 

184. The same night Lima was destroyed by an earthquake, four new vol- 
canic vents were found in the Andes. Soon after the earthquake at Lisbon, 

Questions. — ^181. G-ive particulars of the Great Geyser. Describe the eruptions. 182. 
To what do earthquakes appear to be due ? Where most common ? Where most violent, 
and why ? 183. Best proof that volcanoes and earthquakes have a similar origin ? 184 
What examples are given in illustration ? 



* Sir Charles LyelL 
3^ 



&S EAKTHQIJAKES. 

in 1755, there happened some of the most violent eruptions that ever afflict- 
ed the world. Thirty days after the destruction of the city of Caraccas, 
the volcano of St. Vincent became active ; and at the moment it hroke forth, 
the earth was shaken over an extent of nearly 20,000 square miles. 

185. Earthquakes differ greatly in intensity. The agitation 
is sometimes so weak as to be scarcely sensible ; at other times 
it is so violent as to overturn cities, prostrate trees, turn the course 
of rivers, and change the entire aspect of a country. 

186. The movements of the surface during an earthquake are 
various — vertical, horizontal, and undulatory, or whirling. Low 
rumbling noises resembling distant thunder, or sharp sounds re- 
sembling the clanking of chains and discharges of artillery, are 
commonly heard in great convulsions. 

187. The violence of an earthquake seldom lasts more than a 
minute ; but successive shocks are sometimes felt at very short 
intervals. The most destructive earthquakes are the shortest in 
duration, amounting to little more than the paroxysm of a few 
moments 

188. The great earthquake of Lisbon, November 1, 1755, was over in about 
six minutes ; the three shocks which reduced the city of Caraccas to ruins, 
March 26, 1812, transpired in the space of fifty seconds; and the principal 
convulsion which leveled the city of Conception with the ground, February 
20, 1835, lasted but six seconds. 

189. In some countries, earthquakes of greater or less vio- 
lence occur almost daily. At Lima, on the Peruvian coast, an 
average of forty-five shocks may be expected in the year. At 
Coquimbo, on the coast of Chile, there were noticed during one 
year not less than sixty-one convulsions, not including the slight- 
er ones, which were even more numerous. 

190. Among the remarkable phenomena attending earthquakes 
may be reckoned the permanent elevation and depression of 
large areas of land, the opening of extensive fissures, great 
oceanic waves, etc. 

191. The earthquake of Chile, in 1822, agitated the coast for 

Questions.— 185. Intensity of earthquakes ? 186. Movements of the surface during an 
earthquake? Noises commonly heard in great convulsions? 187. Violence of an earth- 
quake ? Wlia^ js said of the most destructive earthquakes ? 188. Examples ? 189. Fre- 
quency of earthquakes in some countries ? Average annual number at Lima ? Number 
of convulsions noticed in one year at Coquimbo? 190. Phenomena attending earth- 
quakes? 191. Earthquake of Chile in 1822? Give particulars. 



EARTHQUAKES. 59 

a distance of 1,000 miles. The rise upon the coast was from 
two to four feet : — at the distance of a mile inland it was sup- 
posed to be nearly twice as many. It has been conjectured 
that the area over which this permanent alteration of level ex- 
tended may have been equal to 100,000 square miles. 

192. Numerous instances of the depression of land have oc- 
curred. During the great earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, the new 
quay subsided, and its place was occupied by water 600 feet 
deep. In 1819, a region of 2,000 square miles, near the mouth 
of the Indus, embracing the Fort of Sindree, was submerged, 
the UUah Bund, a mound near by, rising as a compensating 
elevation, 

193. Clefts or fissures are frequently formed by earthquakes, 
m which houses, trees, animals, and men have been engulfed in 
an instant ; the earth sometimes closing up, and no vestige oi 
them remaining on the surface. The great earthquake of Cala- 
bria, in 1783, furnished numerous instances of such chasms. 

194. The neighboring waters of the ocean, during an earth- 
quake, are strongly agitated. During the earthquake at Lisbon 
a great wave swept over the coast of Spain, and is said to have 
been sixty feet high at Cadiz. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose 
and fell eighteen times on the coast : at Funchal, in Madeira, it 
rose fifteen feet perpendicular above high-water mark. 

195. Earthquakes nave caused an immense destruction of life 
and property, and in some parts of the world, as in South Amer- 
ica, the inhabitants are in constant apprehension of danger. 

196. During the earthquake which visited Peru, in 1746, 3,800 of the in- 
habitants perished. In 1797, Peru was visited by another earthquake, on 
which occasion 16,000 persons perished. The earthquake at Caraccas, in 
1812, destroyed 10,000 inhabitants. The great earthquake of Lisbon, in 
1755, destroyed 60,000 persons in the course of about six minutes. Tha 
number of persons lost during the earthquake in the two Calabrias and 
Sicily, in 1783, is estimated at 40,00C,' and about 20,000 more died by epi- 
demics which resulted from it. 

Questions. — 192. Give the examOxCs of permanent land depression. 193. What is sahl 
of clefts or fissures ? 194. Example,: ot oceanic movements caused by earthquakes ? 195. 
Fatal effects of earthquakes ? .196. Number of persons who perished during the earth- 
quake of Peru, in 1746? In llQTi During the earthquake at Caraccas, in 1812 ? During 
the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1^55 ? During the earthquake of the two Calabrias, in 1783 ? 



PART IL 

THE WATERS, 




LESSON I. ' 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WATER 

ATER, which is necessary to 
the support of animal and veg- 
etable life, is very widely dif- 
fused and copiously supplied. It 
is found in three forms : vapor- 
ous in the atmosphere, solid in 
ice and snow, and liquid in riv- 
ers and seas. It belongs to this 
part of physical geography to 
treat of it in the last condition. 

198. Water is composed of 
two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, m the proportion of eight parts 
of the former to one of the latter. It is one oi the most marvel- 
ous facts in the natural world, that, though hydrogen is highly 
inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, both, com- 
bined in water, form an element destructive to fire. By pro- 
cesses well known to the chemist, water may be readily resolved 
into its constituent elements. 

199. Pure water is destitute of color, taste, and smell. It 
seldom occurs, however, in this state, but contains various ingre- 
dients, derived either from the atmosphere or from the earth. 

Qufstw72s.—197. What is said of water? In what three forma is it found? 198. Of 
what is water composed ? What niarvelons fact is stated respeclinsj water ? 199. What is 
the character of pure water ? Does it coramoniy occur in this state ? What kind of water 
is the purest ? What do spring and well water contain ? To what is the brackish taste of 
wells in limestone countries owing? By what is the character of river-water determined V 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WATEE. 61 

Rain-water is the purest that can be obtained except by distilla- 
tion. Spring and well water contain many earthy substances in 
solution. The brackish taste of wells in countries abounding with 
limestone is owing to the presence of that substance. River- 
water has its character determined by the soil and vegetation of 
the country through which it flows. 

200. The waters of the globe are divided into the fresh and 
salt. The fresh waters include those of all streams and rivers, 
nearly all the springs, and the greater number of lakes and 
marshes. They are so called because they contain no amount 
of saline matter unfitting them for use. It is supposed that the 
lakes of North America contain more than half the amount of 
fresh water on the face of the globe. 

201. Salt water is that which fills the vast basins of the 
ocean, besides numerous lakes and springs : it forms by far the 
largest portion of the liquid element. The proportion of saline 
matter which the ocean contains is about 3^ per cent. The prin- 
cipal salts contained in sea-water are common salt (chloride of 
sodium), Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda), Epsom salt (sulphate 
of magnesia), chloride of magnesium, sulphate and carbonate of 
lime, — comhion salt being the most considerable in amount. Sup- 
posing the sea to have a mean depth of 1,000 feet, it has been 
calculated that the amount of common salt it would contain would 
be equal, in extent, to five times the mass of the Alps, or one- 
third less than that of the Himalaya Mountains. 

202. Oceanic waters vary in the quantity of saline matter they 
contain in different places. From observations made, it is found 
that the degree of saltness diminishes toward the poles, and 
also near the shores. This is owing to the melting of snow and 
ice, and to the volumes of fresh water poured in by the rivers. 
It is also ascertained that the waters of the southern hemisphere 
contain more salt than those of the northern, while the Atlantic 
is in excess of the Pacific. 

Questions. — 200. How are the waters of the globe divided ? What do the fresh waters 
include ? Why are they so called ? What is said of the lakes of North America? 201. 
Wbat is said of salt water ? What proportion of saline ingredients does it contain? What 
are the principal salts in sea-water? Which is the most considerable in amount? Illus- 
trate. 202. How do oceanic waters vary ? Where is the saltness of the ocean found to 
diminish ? Cause ? Between what other regions is the saltness unequal ? 



62 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WATEE. 

203. Salt water has an extensive distribution in lakes and 
springs, and these are remarkable for the great proportion of 
saline matter they contain. The western part of Asia and the 
southern part of Russia constitute the great salt-water lake region 
of the globe. The Caspian Sea, lakes Aral, Urumiah, Elton, and 
the Dead Sea occur in this district. Some of these waters are 
so salt as to irritate the skin. Fish can not live in them, and if 
a bird dips in their surface, its wings, on drying, are incrusted 
with salt. The waters of the Dead Sea contain about 25 per 
cent, of saline matter. Lake Elton, in the steppe east of the 
Volga, is more strongly impregnated with saline ingredients than 
any other known example, containing 29 per cent. 

204. Water is one of the most widely diffused bodies in 
nature. We have seen (12) that the surface of the earth is es- 
timated to contain 196,500,000 square miles, and that the dry 
land occupies only about 51,000,000 — leaving 145,500,000 square 
miles to be occupied by the fluid element. 

^05. The benevolence of the Deity is manifest in the wide 
diflusion of this element bver the globe. As a nutritive or ali- 
mentary substance, it is indispensable to both the animal and the 
vegetable world. It serves invaluable purposes in the arts and 
manufactures ; in its application as a motive power ; and, when 
occurring in large bodies, in the form of rivers, lakes, and seas, 
as a medium for the more rapid or more commodious transport 
of goods or persons from one locality to another. To the vast 
reservoir of the ocean are we indebted for the clouds which 
carry the moisture from the sea and let it down upon the parched 
and thirsty earth in refreshing rain ; indeed, when we study the 
uses and properties of water, and notice how universally it is 
supplied to the inhabitants of the earth in the conditions best 
adapted to their wants and necessities, we can not but be filled 
with gratitude to Him who so created and distributed it. 

Questions. — 203. What is said of salt lakes and springs ? Where is the great salt-water 
lake region ? Examples. 204. Diffusion of water ? Extent of the liquid element ? 205. 
Mention soma of the uses of water. 



S)wvs'uui liif piiii/ipu] 

OCEA.N CUBHENTS 




s o V T 11 r 4 r I r I r 



( i: A ^ 



■ '% « 1 




^W- 




jm 


tt C E ^i. 




USTOF RIVERS, THE FIGURES IN TMtl«T COLUMN EXPBESSTHE L 
THE a""! COLUMN THE IVREA OF ITS BASIN. I 

Lciui 

l.62ii 3111000 Amitia- 

■ 720 ISoang-lw 

l.ZOO WO.OOO i^Taiig-tse 

UOO W5. 000 , Ganges 

2. ZOO 520,000 'IndlLS 

1-50 Anwo^Llrtts 1.300 SupTv^tes 1600 230.000 Orijioco 

760 70.000 \Slh_OTl fNiU lyr^t^aiUi 3,300 300000 \ Anwzon 

Dyirui Whius.. 160 , Senegal . .900 60. 000 [S.J^-aiLci. 

2,530 1.300.000 ' Q-uon-a 2.ZO0 580. 000 ' LcLriata. 



Thames ■ 

Severn 

Tweed. 

Slianrwn 

Tagv^ . . 

Zaire 

Fo 

MlvUie 

Elbe 

YLstula. 623 

D^-ina. Baikc, 550 



',Z15 6J.eO jU'ev-a 
... S.580 IDanutic 
96 1.870 i.JJnicj,tr 

Z24 6.94G ' -Vniepr 

510 34.000 Don. 

5"0 48.000 Volija 



H OF E»CM RIVER. IN ENGLISH MILES I 
&L1SH SQUARE MILES. 

2.4^10 .160.000 iMcA-enzie . 

2.300 900.000 ' StLmrrmce 

2.600 400.000 ,J{jui.-.-OTL 

3.200 760. 000 : :ilississippi 

1460 420.000 tiraTul,- ad yoitr 

1, -00 4*10. 000 Orci/on 



690 



76.000 Obi 



Yeneset 



2.900 1 110. 000 &ariep 



2160 

2140 600, 000 

325 

4.000 1368,000 

1.200 

l.-iOO 385, OOO 
3.900 2400, OOO 

X500 

2.350 1240,000 



1050 300.000 .Mia-rav 



■ S'j!TearldS5 ?>-»■ JS. Ci^Ztcm &Cc-t. 



iSr^-xus t'm-A/rSin.xher^Ui,!',. 



The iSsrvo^vrs show t/ie ^eiiei^al direction of the. (kuvents: 
those with points at cacli end hidicate cuirejvts which oMcrti-atc 
in direction with the seasoru.-. 
The Dotted lines luport the laTui.Tnark the boundai-ie.* 
hetwcen. tlie diffei-ervt Eiver-Baniiw. 




tance 1 2 1 
tan. 131 



640 
6.330 



Onefla 
IJeiul Sea. 

("airpicji. .!>></- 

Aral 

Zia-rolx 

Balkash 

Zazsitn. 

Teriijii-nor 



3.Z60 

360 

1.800 

130. 000 

Z6.000 

1.100 

1,000 

1,000 

1,800 



1 :Koho-rwT 

' Jiai.lca,l 

Tong-tbig 
• JJernbea. 

amd. 

JJibbie 
^ GreatSearL. 
' &rcal.Sla.ve.L. 
j AThaha.9ca. 

90 



1,500 


Wuwipeg 


n. 000 


14-, SOO 


\ Superior 


4.1. 000 


z.ooo 


i MidiigajL 


iy,..-,oo 


1.400 


Sw-on 


ll^..^,00 


15,000 


\:Ejie 


II .iH'i' 


650 


Ij Ontario 


i:.rnio 


10. 000 


•[ jncarag-ua 


Ji.ZGU 


I'Z.OOO 


, Mti.rcLca.ybo 


s,.ooo 



. 000 ■; Titi.ca.ca- 



MINERAL SPRINGS. 63 

LESSON 11. 

MINERAL SPRINGS. 

206. Mineral waters maybe divided into four classes: (1) 
acidulous, such as contain carbonic acid ; (2) chalybeate, or 
springs holding in solution either the carbonate or the sulphate 
of iron ; (3) sulphurous, or springs containing either sulphureted 
hydrogen, or sulphuret of lime, etc., and which are distinguished 
by their repulsive smell ; and (4) saline, or springs holding in 
solution a considerable portion of neutral salts, which render 
them hard, and impart to them a disagreeable taste, unfitting 
them for a beverage, or for culinary purposes. 

207. Acidulous waters present a sparkling appearance which 
they owe to the presence of carbonic acid gas. This gas is 
very plentifully disengaged from springs in almost all countries, 
but more particularly in the vicinity of active or extinct volcanoes. 
Acidulated waters sparkle when poured from one vessel into 
another. A remarkable spring containing water of this descrip- 
tion occurs in Asia Minor, near Kiz-hisar, which rises very cold, 
but bubbles up exactly like a boiling caldron. A small river in 
South America, a tributary of the Magdalena, which rises in a 
volcanic mountain, has its waters so greatly impregnated with 
this gas, that the Spaniard's call it Vinagre [vinegar). 

208. Chalybeate springs are such as contain oxide of iron ; 
the term is, however, occasionally applied to springs containing 
other substances. The springs at Tonbridge Wells, and Brighton, 
England, belong to this class. 

209. Sulphurous springs are so named because they contain 
sulphur, which usually occurs in the form of sulphureted hydro- 
gen, or of sulphate of lime. Of the springs of this class are 
those of Harrowgate, and St. Bernard's Well, England. Sul- 
phurous springs are very numerous in volcanic countries. 

210. Saline springs contain a greater or less proportion of chlo- 

Q7iesti<yns.—2()^. Mineral waters, how divided ? Acidulous ? Chalybeate ? Sulphurous ? 
Saline ? 207. Appearance of acidulous waters ? Carbonic acid c-as ? Spring near Kiz- 
hisar '? A river in South America ? 208. Chalybeate springs ? Examples. 209. Sulphur- 
ous springs ? Examples. Where numerous ? 210. Saline springs ? Quantity of salt they 
sometimes contain ? Springs at Salina and Syracuse ? On the Great and Little Kanawha? 
AtDroitwich? 



64 MINERAL SPRINGS. 

ride of sodium, or common salt, and are very generally diffused 
throughout the surface of the earth. So great is the quantity of 
chloride of sodium in some of these springs, that they yield one 
fourth of their weight in salt. The springs situated at Salina 
and Syracuse, in the State of New York, are noted examples of 
this class. The principal spring at Salina village affords an in- 
exhaustible supply of water, yielding to every forty gallons about 
one bushel of pure salt. In 1850 there were manufactured at 
these springs over 3J millions of bushels of salt. Salt springs 
occur also on the Great and Little Kanawha rivers, in Virginia, 
which yield about one bushel of salt from every 60 or 70 gallons 
of brine. At Droitwich, England, is a celebrated brine spring 
which produces annually about 700,000 bushels of salt. 

211. Besides the springs above described, there are others 
whose waters are impregnated with various mineral substances 
which impart to them medicinal properties, as those at Chelten- 
ham, England, at Carlsbad, Germany, and at other places. 

212. The mineral springs of the United States are numerous 
and valuable : they are extensively distributed, but those of New 
York and Virginia are the most celebrated Among those in the 
State of New York are, the chalybeate springs of Saratoga, the 
sulphur springs of Sharon, Avon, and Clifton, and the petrifying 
springs of Madison and Saratoga counties. Saratoga is remark- 
able for the number and variety of its springs, the waters of 
which are celebrated for their medicinal properties. 

213. Among the most celebrated of the springs at Saratoga, are Con- 
gress Spring, High Rock Spring, Hamilton Spring, PutnarrCs Spring, 
Iodine Spring, Pavilion Spring, and Empire Spring, not any two of 
which are alike in the composition of their waters. Congress Spring is the 
general favorite of visitors ; it is highly acidulous. Hamilton, Putnam, and 
Pavilion springs are chalybeate. Iodine Spring contains but a small propor- 
tion of iron, and may be drank by a certain class of invalids, with whom 
iron proves a decided injury. 

214. Virginia abounds with mineral springs, but the best 
known are the White and Blue Sulphur Springs of Greenbrier 
County, the Salt and Red Sulphur, and the Sweet in Monroe 



Ks— 211. other kinds of mineral springs ? 212. Mineral springs of the United 
States ? "What noted springs in the State of New York ? For what is Saratoga remark- 
able ? 213. Which are the most celebrated springs at Saratoga ? 214. Principal springs in 
Virginia? 



EIVEKS. 



65 



County, Hot and Warm m Bath, Berkley in Morgan, Fauquier 
White Sulphur in Fauquier, Shannondale in Frederick, Alum in 
Rockbridge, Jordon's White Sulphur in Frederick, Red in Alle- 
ghany, Grayson in Carroll, Botetourt in Roanoke, Holston in 
Scott, Augusta Springs and Daggus Springs in Botetourt. 



LESSON III, 



RIVERS. 



215. Rivers commonly take 
their rise in springs, lakes, or the 
thawed ice and snow of ele- 
vated mountains. The smaller 
streams which unite to form 
them, are variously called rills, 
rivulets, and brooks. Though 
rivers frequently rise in lakes, 
or spring from small elevations, 
the great storehouses from which 
the mightiest streams are fed are 
the ice-clad mountains of table- 
lands. 

216. The basin of a river 
comprehends the entire country 
drained by it and its tributaries. 
The elevated land separating 
one basin from another is called the water-parting or waters/iea, 
of which the ridge of a house-roof affords an illustration. This 
is sometimes a lofty range of mountains, as the Alps, streams 
from which flow into opposite and distant seas. But commonly 
a water-parting has no great elevation, a slight rise of the sur- 
face being sufficient to separate streams whose mouths are thou- 




Lodore "Waterfall 



Questions. — 215. Where do rivers commonly tate their rise ? What are the great store- 
houses from which they are fed? 216. What is the basin of a river? The water-parting 
or watershed ? What elevated water-parting is mentioned? Have water-partings com- 
monly a great elevation ? What rare example is mentioned of two river basins being con- 
nected by a navigable natural 'Channel ? 



66 



RIVERS 



sands of miles apart. South America presents the rare example 
of two river-basins connected by a navigable natural channel. 
This is caused by the river Orinoco branching off in its upper 
course and proceeding by different channels to the sea. 

217. South America is remarkable for containing the largest 
river-basin in the world, that of the Amazon, measuring 2,275,000 
square miles. Next to it, in point of extent, is the basin of the 
Mississippi and Missouri, in North America, measuring 1,333,000 
square miles. The greatest river-basin in Asia is that of the 
Obi, 1,250,000 square miles; the greatest in Africa is that of 
the Nile, supposed to contain 1,240,000 square miles; and the 
greatest in Europe is that of the Volga, 528,000 square miles. 

218. The course of rivers is commonly winding. In some 
cases it is so tortuous that its actual length is three times that 

of a straight line drawn from its 
source to its mouth, as the Forth 
in Scotland ; in others, as the Hud- 
son, — it is mainly straight. The 
Mississippi River is remarkable 
for its windings, or bends, as they 
are locally called. 

219. In 1848, the Raccourci 
Cut-off, an artificial channel, was 
made in this stream a little below 
the confluence of the Red River. 
The distance, about 30 miles, in 
the old channel a common steam- 
boat would be three hours in going 
round, and now one can run through 
the cut-off in ten minutes up, and 
in two or three minutes down. 
The passage was at first a narrow 

Windings' of tne Mississippi. i , • , i i • j j 

one, but it has become so widened 
and deepened by the force of the current that the largest trees 

Questions.— 211. For what is South America remarkable V Extent of the basin of the 
Amazon ? Of the Mississippi and Missouri ? The greatest river-basin in Asia, and its ex- 
tent ? lu Africa, and its supposed extent ? In Europe, and its extent ? 21S. What is said 
of the course of rivers ? The Forth in Scotland ? The Hudson ? The Mississippi ? 219. 
Eaccourci Cut-ofiF? 




RIVEES, 



67 



of the forest will go down root foremost, and the tops of them 
will disappear. 

220. The actual meanderings of the Missouri and the Missis- 
sippi, or the difference between the direct distance from the 
source of the former to the mouth of the latter and that by their 
channels, is estimated at 2,148 geographical miles. The mean- 
derings of the other principal streams, including that of their 
tributaries, is given approximately in the following table : 

Elvers. Meandering. 

Rhine 240 geographical miles. 

Elbe 340 

Rhone 352 

Dnieper 532 

Don 552 

Danube 616 

Ganges 856 

Indus 864 

Euphrates 892 

La Plata 892 

Nile .--. 920 

Orinoco 984 

Lena 1,004 

OM 1,044 

Mackenzie o = . 1,156 

Hoang-Ho 1,160 

Volga 1,440 

Amazon - 1,562 

Yenesei 1,572 

221. The wmdmgs of rivers very greatly augment their util- 
ity, in affording facilities for a more widely extended intercom- 
munication, and m preventing that velocity of current which 
would otherwise prevent their being navigated or bridged with 
safety. We can not regard this arrangement otherwise than as 
a striking evidence of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator. 



Questions.— 12Q. Meanderings of the Mississippi? Other rivers? 221. How do the 
windings of rivers augment their utility ? How must we regard this arrangement ? 



68 



RIVERS. 



LESSON IV. ' 

|i 
RIVERS — {^continued). i) 

222. The fall of rivers is f 
the difference of level between f 
their source and mouth : it va- \ 
ries from a few feet to many 
thousands. That of the Vol- 
ga, in Europe, amounts to only 
633 feet in a course of 2,400 
miles, about three and one 
eight inches to a mile ; on the 
other hand, the Ganges, in 
Asia, falls 13,672 feet in a 
course of 1,680 miles, of more 
than eight feet to a mile. It 
IS in the upper courses of riv- 
ers, in mountainous or hilly 
regions, that the chief portion 
of fall is accomplished, while 
the lower courses have a placid flow, suitable for navigation. 

223. A rapid is a rush or fall of water where the bed of a 
river has a moderate inclination : a cataract is where it has a 
steeper descent, or a vertical depression. Falls formed by rivu- 
lets or mountain torrents receive the name of cascades. 

224. Cataracts are among the most sublime objects of nature, 
the effect they produce m the mmd of the beholder depending 
more on the volume of water than the distance of the descent. 
Though they are to be found in all countries, those of NorthL 
America are by far the most extensive and picturesque. i. 

225. The Falls of Niagara, in the river by the same name, 
which connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, constitute one of !j 
the greatest natural spectacles on the globe. The river, about!l| 




Falls of the Minnilialia, 



Que.tim.s.-'121. What is the fa.l of rivers, and how does it vary / What is that o thelj 
V.^ga? The Ganges ? Where is the chief portion of fall accomplished ? 223^ What 
rapid? A cataract? Cascade? 224. Where are the greatest cataracts / 225. What 
said of the falls of Niagara? Describe it. 



mei. 
at 18^1 



EIVEES. 



69 



three quarters of a mile wide, after forming a succession of rap- 
ids, falls suddenly to a depth of 153 feet. The cataract is divided 
by Goat Island into two parts. The largest of these, on the 
Canadian side, called the Horse-shoe Fall, from its shape, is 
1,800 feet, more than one third of a mile, broad, and 153 feet in 
height. The fall, on the American side, is 600 feet in breadth 
and 164 feet in height. A cloud of mist points out the locality 
of the cataract, and under favorable circumstances its roar may 
be heard, it is said, at a distance of 40 miles. 




Falls of SL. AnLhonj 

226. The Falls of St. Anthony, in the Mississippi, about 400 
miles from its source, and just above the mouth of the St. Peters, 
stand nearly at the head of the navigation of that stream. They 
have a descent of from 17 to 20 feet, and are thus described by a 
recent traveler : " Above the falls the river is about six hundred 
yards in width. In its descent it is divided by Cataract Island, 
a high rocky mass, covered with trees and shrubbery. All around 
this island, above ^nd below, are strewn huge masses of lime- 
stone rocks, heaped in Titanic confusion, and attesting the might- 
iness of the water with which they seem to be contending." 

Que!^tn>v.—22&. Give particulars of the Falls of St. Antbony. 



70 



EIVEES 




Falls of Montmorenci, 



227. Among the other ' 
noted falls in America are 
those of the Missouri, 500 
miles from its source, a 
succession of rapids and 
cataracts, 26, 47, and 87 ft. .1 
in perpendicular height ; | 
the rapids of St. Law- 
rence, above Montreal, | 
^tending about 9 miles ; | 
the Great and Little Falls 
of the Potomac, in Mary- 
land ; the Falls of Mont- 
morenci, near Quebec, ^ 
which descend 240 feet ; 
in an unbroken sheet ; and 
the Cataract of Tequen- : 
dama, in the environs of | 
Santa Fe de Bogota, a 
magnificent fall of 574 ft. , 



228. The Great Falls of the Missouri are the grandest in all! 
North America, those of Niagara excepted ; and although the 
latter exceed the former with respect to volume of water, depth, 
of descent, and awful grandeur, yet the former are far more di-} 
versified and beautiful. These falls are within sixty geograph-| 
ical miles of the easternmost range of the Rocky Mountains, j 
They were discovered by Captain Lewis while engaged in ex-j 
ploring the Missouri. Hearing a sound like that of a fall of 
water, he proceeded in the direction of it. " As he advanced, a 
spray arose above the plain like a column of smoke, and vanish- 1 
ed in an instant. Toward this point he directed his steps ; and 
having traveled seven miles after first hearing the sound, he 
reached the falls about mid-day. The hills as he approached 
were difficult of access, and 200 feet high. Down these he hur-^ 
ried with impatience, and seating himself o'h some rocks underj 
the center of the falls, enjoyed the sublime spectacle of this, 



Questions.— 221 . Other noted falls in America? 228. The Great Falls 
Give an account of its discovery. 



I 
the Missouri ? 



KIVEKS. 



71 



stupendous cataract, which since the creation has been lavishing 
its magnificence on the desert, unknown to civilization." 

229. The principal water- -i_-"^^:^ 

falls of the Eastern Conti- 
nent are Terni, Italy, a 
fall of the Velino, of 300 
feet, usually regarded as the 
finest European cataract ; 
Staubach, near Lauterbrun- 
nen, in Switzerland, a per- 
pendicular descent of 800 
feet ; Rhinefall, near Schaff- 
hausen, a fall of the river 
Rhine in three distinct 
branches over a precipice 
upwards of 80 feet ' high ; 
Reichenbach, canton of 
Bern, a series of six falls, 
amounting to 1,000 feet ; 
Ache, a small river of Ba- ReicheniDac-h. 

varia, descending in five falls 2,000 feet; Evanson, a torrent of 
Mount Rosa, 1,100 feet; Cauvery, southern India, two grand falls 
near Seringapatam, 810 feet; Girsupah, near a town of that name 
in the western Ghauts, a single fall of a considerable stream, 
872 feet. 




LESSON V 
RIVERS — [continued) . 

230. The termination of rivers is commonly by a single mouth, 
as in the instances of the St. Lawrence and the Hudson ; but 
many streams, flowing through alluvial regions, carry along 
sedimentary accumulations which they deposit at their mouths, 
producing formations of land, and dividing the main stream into 

Qii£Stions.—22^. Give the particulars of the following falls and rapids: Terni, Staubach, 
Ehinefall, Eeichenbach. Ache, Evanson, Cauvery, Girsupah. 230. Termination of rirers? 
Sedimentary accumulations? Deltas? 



72 



RIVEKS. 




branches. Such formations are called deltas, from their corre- 
spondence to the shape of the Greek letter A (delta). 

231. The delta of the Mis- 



sissippi consists of a long, nar- 
row tongue of land protruding 
for 50 miles into the Gulf of 
Mexico, at the end of which 
are numerous channels of dis- 
charge. This extensive for- 
mation has been produced by 
the deposit of the sedimentary 
matter brought down by that 
mighty stream. The rate of 
Delta cf the Mississippi permanent advance of the new 

land has been very slow, not exceeding, it is supposed, one mile 

in a century.* 

232. It has been calculated that the mean annual amount of 
solid matter which the water of the Mississippi contains is about 
T2V5 of i^s weight, and that it is equal to about 3 oVo ^^ its vol- 
ume. It has also been estimated that the quantity of solid mat- 
ter annually brought down by the river is 3,702,758,400 cubic 
feet, an amount which would cover over eleven miles square one 
foot deep. 

233. The waters of the Ganges 
contam a much greater proportion 
of sedimentary matter, particu- 
larly during the season of the 
rains, which lasts about four 
months. The average quantity 
of solid matter suspended in the 
water during such times was by 
weight 4 ^8^^ P^^t ' ^^^ t^® solid 

Delta of the Gariges. ^^^^^^ discharged is ^l^th part 

in bulk, or 577 cubic feet per second. The total annual amount 

Question^.— 2'&\. Delta of the Mississippi? The rate of its formation ? 232. Proportion 
of the sedimentary matter? Amount annually brought down ? 233. Sedimentary matter 
in the Ganges ? Total annual amount ? The Hoang-Ho ? 




* Sir Charles Lyell. 



EIVEKS. 73 

of mud discharged is estimated at 6,368,077,440 cubic feet, a 
mass equal in weight and bulk, it has been calculated, to eighty- 
two of the great pyramids of Egypt. The Hoang-Ho, which 
traverses the great alluvial plain of China, is supposed to bring 
down in one hour 2,000,000 cubic feet of earth, which so thick- 
ens and colors the ocean by its discharges as to originate the 
name of the Yellow Sea. 

234. Rivers are grouped into two grand classes, the oceanic 
and the continental. Oceanic rivers are those which flow direct 
into the ocean, or into waters communicating with it. They 
form four distinct systems, belonging respectively to the Arctic, 
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. 

I. System of the Arctic Ocean. 

Length in 
Eivers Course. Termination. English 

Miles. 

Lena Eastern Siberia Arctic Ocean 2,400 

Olenek Northern Siberia Ditto 1,150 

Yenesei Central Siberia Ditto 2,900 

Obi Western Siberia Gulf of Obi 2,530 

Petchora Northern Russia Arctic Ocean 695 

Dwina Ditto White Sea 760 

Mackenzie British America Arctic Ocean 2,160 

n. System of the Atlantic Ocean. 

Neva Northern Russia Gulf of Finland. . . 46 

Vistula Poland, Prussia Baltic Sea 630 

Elbe Germany German Ocean 690 

Rhine Switzerland and Germany. Ditto 760 

Loire France Bay of Biscay 570 

Rhone Switzerland, France Mediterranean 490 

Danube Austrian Empire, Turkey .Black Sea 1,630 

Dnieper Southern Russia Ditto 1,200 

Don Ditto Ditto 1 ,100 

Nile (Blue N.) Abyssinia, Nubia, Egypt.. Mediterranean 2,600 

Senegal Western Africa Atlantic Ocean 900 

Niger.. Ditto Gulf of Guinea ... 2,300 

Gariep Southern Africa Atlantic Ocean 1,000 

Saskatchewan British America .Hudson's Bay 1,920 

St. Lawrence Ditto Atlantic Ocean 2,070 

Mississippi-Missouri . Central North America .. .Gulf of Mexico 4,100 

Rio-del-Norte Mexico Ditto 1,400 

Questions.— 2Z^. Eivers, how grouped ? Oceanic rivers ? Systems ? Name the princi- 
pal rivers belonging to the system of the Arctic Ocean. Atlantic Ocean. Pacific Ocean. 
Indian Ocean. 

4 



Ti DIVERS. 

Length in 
Bivers. Course. Tennination. English 

^ Miles. 

Magdalena New Granada Caribbean Sea 860 

Orinoco Venezuela Atlantic Ocean 1,200 

Amazon Brazil Ditto 3,900 

Araguay Ditto Ditto 1,300 

St. Francisco Ditto Ditto 1,500 

Plata Ditto Ditto 2,350 

m. System of the Pacific Ocean. 

Amour Eastern Asia Sea of Okhotsk 2,300 

Hoang-Ho China Yellow Sea 2,600 

Yang-tse-Kiang Ditto Ditto 3,200 

Si-Kiang Ditto China Sea 1,110 

Meinam Siam Gulf of Siam 900 

Cambodia Tibet, Cochin China China Sea 2,000 

Columbia Oregon Pacific Ocean 750 

Colorado Utah, New Mexico Gulf of California. . 900 

rV. System of the Indian Ocean. 

Euphrates Western Asia Persian Gulf 1,600 

Tigris Ditto Ditto 980 

Indus Northern India Arabian Sea 1,700 

Ganges Ditto Bay ofBengal 1,460 

Brahmapootra Tibet, Assam ..Ditto 2,000 

Irawaddy Tibet, Birman Empire Ditto. 1,200 

Murray South Australia Encounter Bay 1,000 

235. Continental rivers are those which are confined exclu- 
sively to the continents, and discharge themselves into completely- 
insulated lakes, or are lost in sands, deserts, or swamps. The 
principal continental rivers are stated in the following table : 

Eivers. Course. Termination. 

Volga European Russia Caspian. 

Kour Georgia Ditto. 

Terek Circassia Ditto. , 

Ural European and Asiatic Eussia. Ditto. i 

Amoo, or Jihon (ancient Oxus) Turkestan Lake Aral. 

Sir, or Sihoon Ditto Ditto. | 

Helmund Afghanistan Lake Zurrah. ; 

Yarkand Central Asia Lake Lopnor. ; 

Many streams in Central Asia j 

terminate in insulated lakes, [ 

or are lost in desert sands. . 

Question.— 12&. Continental rivers ? Name the principal continental rivers, the eoun- i 
iriea through which they flow, and their places of termination. 



KIVEKS, 



T5 



Elvers. Course. Termination. 

Jordan Palestine Dead Sea. 

Streams north of the African 

Sahara, lost in sands 

Rio Grande Mexico „ . . . Lake Parras. 

Desaguadero Bolivia Lakes and Swamps. 

Humboldt's Utah Territory Lake. 

Bear Ditto Great Salt Lake. 

Many other streams in Utah 
Territory are lost in sands, 
marshes, or lakes. 

236. The magnitude of rivers depends upon the area of their 
basins, the rain-producing character of the climate, and the ar- 
rangement of the surrounding mountains, with reference to the 
prevailing winds. Lieut. Maury thus accounts for the vast rivers 
of the South American continent : " The northeast and southeast 
trade-winds, as they come across the Atlantic, filled with moist- 
ure, go full charged into the interior, dropping it in showers as 
they go, until they reach the snow-capped summits of the Andes, 
where the last drop, which that very low temperature can wring 
from them, is deposited to melt and feed the sources of the Ama- 
zon and the La Plata, with their tributaries." 

237. The proportional quantity of water discharged by some 
of the principal rivers has been estimated as follows : 



Thames 1 

Rhine 13 

Loire 10 

Po 6 

Elhe 8 

Vistula 12 

Danube 65 

Dnieper 36 



Don 38 

Volga 80 

Euphrates 60 

Indus 133 

Ganges 148 

Yang-tse-Kiang . . . 258 

Amour 166 

Lena 125 



Obi 179 

Nile 250 

St. Lawrence 112 

Mississippi 338 

Plata 490 

Amazon 1,280 



238. Many rivers are subject to periodical inundations. It is 
to the annual overflowings of the Nile that Egypt owes her fer- 
tility. The rise commences about the 21st of June, attains its 
greatest height near the middle of September, and gradually di- 
minishes to the time of the winter solstice. Both the Mississippi 
and the Missouri have annual floods during the spring months. 



Questions. — 236. Upon what does the magnitude of rivers depend ? The large rivers 
of South America ? 237. State the proportional quantity of water discharged by some of the 
principal rivers. 238. Inundations of rivers ? Overflowings of the Nile ? Of other rivers? 



76. NOKTH AMERICAN KIVEKS. 

Among the other streams subject to overflow are the Orinoco, 
Amazon, Euphrates, Tigris, etc. 

239. The following beautiful extract relates to the historic associations of 
rivers : " The rivers of the old world, while subordinate to those of the new 
in point of magnitude, have a historic and sacred interest in many instances 
wholly wanting to the latter. The Danube recalls the struggle of the an- 
cient civilization with overwhelming barbaric invasions; the Tiber revives 
the story of Roman greatness ; the Nile associates itself with the colossal 
power of the Pharaohs ; the Tigris and Euphrates are connected with the 
mighty dynasties of Assyria and Babylon, the captivity of God's chosen peo- 
ple, and that momentous hour when the hand of retributive justice unfolded 
the doom of monarch and of nation at a profane festivity of the royal house ; 
while the Jordan is imperishably linked with far more stupendous transac- 
tions : the miracle which divided its waters at the ingress of Israel into the 
land of promise ; and that voice from heaven which proclaimed the charac- 
ter of the Messiah at his baptism in the stream, placing his right to the 
universal homage of man, supported by the design of his mission, on the 
firm ground of his Divine nature : ' This is my beloved Son, in whom I am 
well pleased.'"* 



LESSON VI. 

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 

240. In no portion of the world are rivers found upon so mag- 
nificent a scale as on the continent of North and South America. 
The magnitude of these streams is owing to a variety of causes, 
some of which have been described ; as the situation and direc- 
tion of the great mountain ranges, the extent of the river-basins, 
etc. : others will be explained in a subsequent part, which treats 
of wind, rain, etc. 

241. North American Rivers. — The continent of North 
America may, with reference to its drainage, be divided into four 
grand divisions : (1) The Atlantic slope, or that part which ii> 
drained by the rivers tributary to the Atlantic Ocean ; (2) the 

Questions.— 239. What is said of the rivers of the old world ? Illustrate. 240 Magni- 
fude of the American rivers? To what owing? 241. How may the continent of North 
America be divided with reference to its drainage ? First division ? Second ? Third V 
■Fourth ? 



* Eev. Thomas MUner. 



NOETH AMERICAN RIVERS. 77 

Valley of the Mississippi, lying between the Rocky and Alle- 
ghany Mountains ; (3) the region to the west of the Rocky 
Mountains, the streams of which are tributary to the Pacific 
Ocean ; (4) the northern slope drained by streams tributary to 
Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Ocean. 

242. The Mississippi is the largest of the North American 
rivers : it waters the southern half of the great plain, and brings 
to the sea the drainage of upward of a million of square miles. 
It rises in the small lake of Itasca, at an elevation of only 1,490 
feet above the level of the sea, and flows in a southerly direction 
to its termination in the Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 2,400 
miles. The Mississippi is navigable for 2,000 miles to the Falls 
of St= Anthony, which occur at a distance of about 400 miles 
below its source. 

243. The Missouri has its origin in the Rocky Mountains, and 
runs for 2,500 miles in a southeasterly direction before it joins 
the Mississippi, making a total distance, from its source to its en- 
trance into the Gulf of Mexico, of more than 4,000 miles. It is 
navigable from the point where it unites with the Mississippi up 
to the base of the Rocky Mountains, where the Great Falls oc- 
cur (in latitude 46° 50^. 

244. During the period of the annual floods, large tracts of the 
adjoining country are overflowed, and immense damage done to 
property. Artificial embankments, called levees, are constructed 
along the lower course of the Mississippi to prevent inundation ; 
but in seasons of high floods they are often broken through by 
the *force of the waters, forming what are known as crevases. 
About one fifth of the whole surface of the State of Louisiana 
is periodically overflowedo 

245. The Ohio is, next to the Missouri, the most important 
of the tributaries of the Mississippi : it is formed by the junc- 
tion of the Monongahela and the Alleghany rivers, which unite 
their waters at Pittsburg, where the river becomes navigable. 
The Ohio, about 950 miles in length, and from four hundred 
yards t» upward of three quarters of a mile in breadth, flows 

Questions. — 242. The Mississippi? Its source, direction, and termination? How far 
navigable ? 243. The Missouri ? How far navigable ? 244. Floods ? Artificial embank- 
ments? 245. The Ohio? Its length, etc. ? Falls? 



78 NORTH AMERICAN RIVERS, 

througn one of the most fertile portions of the Mississippi Valley. 
It has no fall, except a rocky rapid of 22^ feet descent at Louis- 
ville, around which a canal has been constructed sufficiently ca- 
pacious to admit steamboats, though not of the largest class, 

246. Among the other prmcipal streams in the Yalley of the 
Mississippi are the following : the St. Peters, Iowa, Des Moines, 
St. Croix, Wisconsin, and Illinois rivers, tributaries to the Mis- 
sissippi above, and the Ohio, Arkansas, and Red rivers below, the 
junction of the Missouri ; the Yellow-stone, Platte, Kansas, and 
Osage rivers, tributaries to the Missouri ; and the Scioto, Miami, 
Wabash, Kanawha, Licking, Kentucky, Green, Cumberland and 
Tennessee rivers, tributaries to the Ohio. 

247. The St. Lawrence is the second great river of the North 
American continent, and by far the largest of the streams drain- 
ing the Atlantic slope. Its channel from Lake Ontario to the 
sea is about 700 miles long, but (including the great chain of 
lakes from which it derives its waters) the whole length, from 
the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the western extremity of Lake 
Superior, is 1,880 miles. Above Montreal, rapids occur which 
interrupt its navigation. During four months of the year the 
navigation is completely stopped by the ice. 

248. Of the other streams draining the Atlantic slope, the 
principal are the Connecticut (400 miles), the Hudson (325 
miles), the Delaware (300 miles), the Susquehanna (450 miles), 
the Potomac (400 miles), the James (450 miles), the Roanoke 
(350 miles), the Pedee (350 miles), the Santee (350 miles), the 
Savannah (400 miles), and the Alatamaha (400 miles), — all of 
which flow into the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachicola (600 
miles) and the Mobile, further to the westward, flow into the 
Gulf of Mexico. Most of these rivers are navigable for a con- 
siderable distance inland, and the Hudson (at the mouth of which 
stands the city of New York) can be ascended by the largest 
merchant ships 120 miles, and steamers nearly 160 miles. 



Questions.— 146. Tributaries to the Mississippi above the junction of the Missouri ? Be- 
low the junction of the Missouri? Tributaries to the Missouri ? To the Ohio? 247. The 
St. Lawrence? Its length from Lake Ontario? Its whole length including the lakes? 
Rapids ? Ice ? 248. Other streams draining the Atlantic slope ? Their navigability ? The 
Hudson, how far navigable for the largest ships ? Fop steamers ? 



NOKTH AMERICAN KIYEKS. 79 

249. The principal rivers draining the region to the west of the 
Rocky Mountains — forming the third division — are the Fraser 
(600 miles), Oregon, or Columbia (750 miles), Sacramento (420 
miles), and the Colorado (840 miles). Columbia, the most con- 
siderable of these, receives several important tributaries, the 
largest of which is the Lewis. The river Sacramento waters 
the northern half of the valley lying between the Sierra Nevada 
and the coast range of California, and forms at its mouth the 
harbor of San Francisco : immediately above this outlet it is 
joined by the San Joaquin, which drains the southern half of the 
valley, and carries off the waters of Lake Tule. The streams 
tributary to the Sacramento and San Joaquin, which flow in from 
the westj drain the gold regions of California. 

250. Of the streams draining the northern slope of North 
America two divisions may be made, — one embracing the Nelson, 
Churchill, and other rivers flowing into Hudson Bay ; and the 
other, the Mackenzie, Coppermine, and other streams flowing 
into the Arctic Ocean. The most considerable of these streams 
is the Mackenzie, which issues from the western extremity of 
the Great Slave Lake : during the summer it pours a vast flood 
of waters into the sea, but is obstructed by ice during nine months 
of the year. 

251. The Rio del Norte is a considerable stream of 1,400 
miles in length, which rises in the southern part of the Rocky 
Mountains and runs a southwesterly direction into the Gulf of 
Mexico. To the south of this stream are few rivers of any con- 
siderable length. The San Juan, in Central America, possesses 
considerable interest from its having hitherto afforded the most 
ready means of communication between the opposite shores of 
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It has its origin in the lake of 
Nicaragua, on the southern portion of the plateau of Guatemala, 
and after a course of 120 miles, empties itself into the Caribbean 
Sea. 

Questions. — 249. The principal rivers draining the third division? The Columbia? 
Sacramento ? San Joaquim ? Gold regions, how drained ? 250. What two divisions of 
the streams draining the northern slope? The Mackenzie? 251. The Eio del Norte? 
San Juan ? 



C*0 SOUTH AMEKICAN KIVERS. 

LESSON VII. 

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 

252. South American Rivers. — The three principal rivers 
of South America are the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata, 
which drain respectively the northern, middle, and southern por- 
tions of the great plain. 

253. The Orinoco (about 1,200 miles long) rises in the mount- 
ains of Guiana. About 130 miles below' its source it sends off' 
to the southward a branch called the Casiquiare (200 miles in 
length), which joins the river Negro, a tributary of the Amazon, 
and thus effects a natural communication (navigable for boats) 
between the basins of these two great rivers. 

254. The principal tributaries of the Orinoco are the Guav- 
iari, Meta, and Apure (rising in the Andes), on its left bank ; the 
Ventuari, Caura, and Caroni, on the right. Below the village of 
Angostura, 280 miles from the mouth of the Orinoco, no impedi- 
ments to its navigation occur : above this its course is occasion- 
ally interrupted by rapids, but in general it presents a deep and 
navigable channel nearly to its source. 

255. The Amazon (called the Maranon in the upper portion 
of its course) rises in the small lake of Laurdococha, upon the 
table-land of Pasco, amid the highest parts of the Peruvian 
Andes, Thence it flows in a northerly course until it leaves the 
mountains, and afterward crosses the great plain in an easterly 
direction to the Atlantic Ocean. The whole length of the Ama- 
zon is little short of 3,900 miles. 

256. The tributaries of the Amazon are numerous and on a 
grand scale, some of them being equal to the largest streams of 
the Old World. The principal are the Napo, Putumayo or lea, 
Yapura, and Negro, on the left bank : — the Huallaga, Ucayale, 
Javary, Jutay, Jurua, Teffe, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, 



-252. The three principal rivers of South America? 253. The Orinoco? 
Casiquiare ? 254. The principal tributaries of the Orinoco ? Its navigability ? 255. The 
Amazon? Its course? Length? 256. What is said of the tributaries of the Amazon? 
The principal tributaries on the left bank ? Upon the right banlc ? The Madeira ? 



SOUTH AMERICAN RIVERS. 81 

and Tocantins, upon the right. The Madeira has a course of 
more than 2,000 miles before it joins the Amazon. 

257. At the distance of 700 miles below its source the Ama- 
zon has a width of 800 yards, and during the last 450 miles of 
its course, it is nowhere less than four miles in width, and at its 
mouth the channel is fifty miles across. A recent exploration 
of this river* has proved that it is navigable for vessels of the 
largest class from its mouth to the very foot of the Andes, a dis- 
tance of about 3,500 miles. So great is the amount of water 
which it brings down that its freshness is perceptible at a dis- 
tance of more than 500 miles from the coast. 

258 The Rio de la Plata is a broad fresh-water estuary, 
which receives the waters of the Parana and Uruguay. The 
Parana has its rise in the mountains of Brazil, and, reckoning 
from its most distant source to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, 
is 2,350 miles in length. About 760 miles above the sea it re- 
ceives the Paraguay, which has a course of about 1,260 miles. 
The Uruguay (1,000 miles long) flows nearly parallel to the 
lower course of the Parana. Both the Parana and Paraguay 
are navigable for large vessels to a distance of nearly 1,000 miles. 

259. Among the other principal rivers of South America are 
the Magdalena (860 miles), which flows into the Caribbean Sea, 
and the Atrato (300 miles), into the Gulf of Darien. The Es- 
sequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Surinam, and Maroni, flow into the 
Atlantic to the eastward of the mouth of the Orinoco. To the 
east and south of the Amazon are the Maranhao, Paranahyba, St. 
Francisco (1,500 miles), and many others belonging to the At- 
lantic coast. The Colorado (600 miles) and the Negro (800 
miles) flow into the Atlantic southwest of the Rio de la Plata. 

260. The rivers on the western coast of South America are 
very short : among the longest are the Biobio, in Chili, about 
150 miles, and a few streams of nearly equal length to the north- 
ward of the Gulf of Guayaquil. 

Questions. — 257. Width of the Amazon ? How far navigable ? Illustrate the great ex- 
tent of water it brings down. 25S. The Kio de la Plata? The Parana? Paraguay? 
Uruguay? How far are the Parana and Paraguay navigable? 259. Other principal rivers 
of South America? Eivers flowing into the Atlantic to the east of the mouth of the Ori- 
noco ? To the east and south of the Amazon ? To the south of the Eio de la Plata? 260. 
The rivers of the western coast? Biobio ? 



* By Lieut Hemdon. 

4* 



8B EUROPEAN KIVEKS. 

LESSON VIII. 

RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. 

261. European Rivers. — Europe is divided into two prin- 
cipal river systems, — one embracing those streams which have 
a southerly direction, and flow into the Mediterranean, Caspian, 
and Black seas ; the other comprising those which have a north- 
erly course, and terminate in the North, Baltic, and White seas, 
and the Arctic Ocean. 

262. In the west, these two systems are for the most part di- 
vided by the Alps and German mountains ; but in the eastern 
part of Europe the division of the waters is merely a ridge of 
the great plain slightly elevated above the general level. This 
watershed begins on the northern declivity of the Carpathian 
Mountains, about the 23d meridian, in a low range of hills run- 
ning between the sources of the Dnieper and the tributaries of 
the Vistula, from whence it winds in a tortuous course along the 
plain to the Valdai table-land, which is its highest point, 1,200 
feet above the sea. It then declines northward toward the Onega, 
about the 60th parallel, and lastly turns in a very serpentine line 
to the Ural Mountains, near the 62d degree of north latitude. 

263. The Volga, which is the largest river of Europe, rises 
in the plateau of Valdai, at the height of 1,100 feet above the 
sea: its entire course is 2,200 miles in length, and the area of 
its basin about 520,000 square miles, or nearly one seventh of 
the whole surface of the continent. The Volga is navigable 
through nearly its whole length, and has considerable depth. 
During the greater part of winter it is frozen over but at other 
times is the highway of a most extensive traffic. 

264. The Danube, 1,630 miles, is the second of the rivers ol 
Europe, both in length of course and in the area of its basin, 
which is 310,000 square miles in extent. It rises in the Black 
Forest, to the north of Switzerland, at a height of 2,200 feet 

Questions. — 261. Into what two river systems is Europe divided ? 262. Division of the 
two systems in the western part? In ihe eastern part? Describe the course of the water- 
shed through eastern Europe. 263. Give particulars of the Volga. How far navigable ? 
264. Give particulars of the Danube. Its source, direction, and termination ? 



EUKOPEAN RIVERS. 83 

'above the level of the sea, and flows in an easterly direction 
across the plateau of Bavaria, through Austria, the plain of Hun- 
gary, and between Bulgaria and Wallachia, until it enters the 
Black Sea. 

265. The Danube is navigable from its mouth up to Ulm (10° 
east longitude), or throughout nearly, the whole length of its 
course, excepting between the towns of Moldova and Gladova, 
where it passes, for a space of 60 miles, through a succession 
of rapids and shallows. The principal tributaries are the Inn, 
the Drave, the Save, and the Morava, on the south (or right- 
hand) bank; and the March, the Theiss, the Aluta, and the Pruth, 
on the north side ; all of these are rivers of considerable magni- 
tude. 

266 Of the other principal streams which flow into the Black 
Sea are the Dniester (700 miles), the Dnieper (1,200 miles), and 
the Don (1,100 miles). The Dnieper is navigable from Smo- 
lensk to the sea, excepting for a distance of about 150 miles be- 
low Kiev, within which its navigation is impeded by rocks and 
cataracts. 

267. The Rhine rises in the Alps, at an elevation of 6,580 feet, 
and flows in the upper portion of its course through Lake Con- 
stance. It has a length of 760 miles, and its basin is 70,000 
square miles in area : at Basle (where it is 765 feet above the 
level of the sea) its breadth is 800 feet, at Mentz about 1,700, 
and at Cologne 1,400. It is navigable for boats as high up as 
the Falls of Schaff'hausen, a short distance below Lake Con- 
stance, and for vessels of some magnitude as high as Strasburg. 
The current is generally rapid, flowing at the rate of four or five 
miles an hour. Its principal affluents are the Neckar and Mayne 
on the right bank, and the Aar and Moselle on the left. 

268. Of the other considerable rivers flowing into the Atlantic 
Ocean are — the Elbe (690 miles) and the Weser (380 miles) to 
the north, and the Meuse (550 miles), Seine (430 miles), Loire 
(570 miles), and Garonne (350 miles), to the south. Spain is 

Questions.— 265. Navigation of the Danube ? Tributaries ? 266. Other streams which 
flow into the Black Sea ? The Dnieper ? 267. The Ehine ? Its length, extent of its basin, 
etc. ? Its principal affluents ? 268. Other considerable rivers flowing into the Atlantic 
Oceaa ? Rivers of Spain ? 



84 ASIATIC KIVEKS. 

watered by numerous rivers, as the Minho (200 miles), the 
Douro (460 miles), the Tagus (510 miles), and the Guadiana 
(450 miles) ; they are all navigable in the lower parts of their 
courses The Guadalquiver (290 miles) is navigable for large 
vessels up to Seville. 

269. The rivers which flow into the Mediterranean have gen- 
erally short courses, owing to the nearness of the mountains on 
the north. The Ebro (420 miles) flows from the eastern side 
of the Spanish table-land. The Rhone (490 miles) rises in the' 
highest region of the Alps, and passing in its course through 
Lake Geneva, below which it is navigable, falls into the Gulf of 
Lyons. The Arno (150 miles) and the Tiber (210 miles), both 
water the western side of the Italian peninsula ; the Po (450 
miles) and the Adige (250 miles) flow through the plain of 
Lombardy, and enter the Adriatic Sea near its northern ex- 
tremity. 

270. Of the rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea are — the Duna 
(450 miles), the Niemen (400 miles), the Vistula (630 miles), 
and the Oder (550 miles). The Duna, the Vistula, and the Oder 
are navigable for the greater part of their courses. The Neva, 
which flows into the head of the Gulf of Finland, though only 
46 miles in length, is of considerable importance, and has a vast 
volume of water, since it is the outlet of the great lakes of Lad- 
oga and Onega : it has a mean breadth of 1,500 feet and a depth 
of 50 feet, but is frozen over for five months of the year 

271. The White Sea and Arctic Ocean receive several im- 
portant streams, among which are the Dwina (760 miles), the 
Mezen (480 miles), and the Petchora (500 miles). 



LESSON IX. 

RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT (contiuued) . 

272. Asiatic Rivers. — The rivers of Asia may, like those 
of Europe, be divided into two principal classes, separated by 



-269. What is said of the rivers flowing into the Mediterranean ? The Ebro? 
Ehone? Other streams ? 270. The principal rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea? Which 
are navigable ? The Neva? 271. Streams flowing into the White Sea and Arctic Ocean? 
272. How may the rivers of Asia be divided ? The northern division ? The other class ? 



ASIATIC RIVERS. 85 

the mountains and table-lands which extend east and west through 
the interior. The northern division embraces the rivers which 
flow into the Arctic Ocean, and those (in the west) which termi-= 
nate in inland seas or lakes unconnected with the ocean. The 
other and more numerous class includes the streams which have 
their origin in the mountains of the interior, and flow either 
southerly into the Indian Ocean, or eastwardly into the Pacific « 

273. The Obi, which flows into the Arctic Ocean, is 2,530 
miles in length; its river-basin is 1,250,000 square miles in ex= 
tent, being probably the largest basin of any river in the Eastern 
hemisphere. Of the other considerable rivers in the north of 
Asia are the Yenesei (2,900 miles) and the Lena (2,400 miles). 
The Obi, Yenesei, and Lena all rise in the mountains of the 
Altai system, and flow through the Siberian plain. Owing to 
the severity of the climate their waters are frozen during a great 
part of the year, and they are hence of little use for the purposes 
of navigation. 

274. The Ganges (1,460 miles) and the Indus (1,700 miles), 
two of the most important rivers of Asia, both water the north= 
em portion of Hindoostan. The Ganges, whose basin extends 
from east to west to the south of the Himalaya Mountains, flows 
in an easterly direction into the head of the Bay of Bengal. At 
its mouth it divides into numerous arms, which inclose a delta 
of immense extent (page 72) : its most western arm, called the 
Hoogly, upon which Calcutta is built, is the only one that is 
usually navigated. The Ganges is remarkable for the great ex- 
tent of its fall : it is ascended by steamers as high as Allahabad, 
more than 800 miles from its mouth. 

275. The Indus rises on the plateau of Tibet, to the northward 
of the Himalaya Mountains, at an elevation of more than 15,000 
feet, and flows into the Arabian Sea. About 470 miles above its 
mouth the Indus receives on its left bank the river Chenaub, 
which collects the waters of the five streams of the Jeloam, the 
Chenaub, the Ravee, the Bayas, and the Sutlej. The district 
watered by these five rivers is called the Punjaub* All the 

Questions. — 2T3. The Obi? Other considerable rivers of northern Asia? What further 
is said of the Obi, Yenesei, and Lena ? 274. The Ganges and Indus ? Give particulars 
of the Ganges. 275. The Indus. Its tributaries. Hovr far navigable ? 

* Properly, Pe-nj-ab, or five rivers. 



86 AFRICAN KIVEES. 

chief tributaries of the rivers, as well as the main stream, are 
navigable through nearly their entire length : steamboats of con- 
siderable size can ascend to more than 500 miles distance from 
the sea, and smaller vessels to 500 miles higher. 

276. Of the other principal rivers belonging to the basin of 
the Indian Ocean are the Saleun and the Irawaddy (1,200 miles), 
both flowing into the Gulf of Martaban ; the Brahmapootra, the 
Godavery, the Krishna, and the Cauvery, into the Bay of Ben- 
gal ; the Nerbudda, into the Gulf of Cambay ; and the united 
Euphrates (1,600 miles) and Tigris (980 miles) into the Persian 
Gulf. 

277. The seas to the east of Asia receive several large rivers, 
among which are the Amour (2,300 miles), which flows into the 
Gulf of Tartary ; the Hoang-Ho (2,600 miles), and the Yang-tse 
Kiang (3,200 miles), both flowing into the Yellow Sea ; and the 
Cambodia (2,000 miles), into the Gulf of Siam. 

278. The drainage of a large part of the Asiatic continent — 
probably not less than four and a half millions of square miles — 
is unconnected with any of the surrounding oceans, but is re- 
ceived into inland seas or lakes, of which the Caspian and Aral 
possess the most extensive basins. The principal continental 
rivers of Asia are the Kour (550 miles), the Amoo, or Jihon 
(1,300 miles), and the Sihoon (1,150 miles), flowing into the 
Sea of Aral. The Tarim, or Erghue (900 miles), flows into the 
Lake of Lop, in the center of the continent. The Helmund 
(600 miles), which rises in the plateau of Afghanistan, falls into 
Lake Zurrah ; the Jordan, in Palestine, into the Dead Sea. 

279. African Rivers. — The Nile is the most considerable 
river of Africa : it carries ofl" the waters from the northern and 
western sides of the plateau and mountains of Abyssinia, and 
discharges itself into the Mediterranean. The Nile is formed 
by the junction (in latitude 15° 40^ north) of two streams, — the 
Bahr-el-Azrek (Blue River), and the Bahr-el-Abiad (or White 
River) : the latter is generally admitted to constitute the main 



-276, Name the principal rivers belonging to the basin of the Indian Ocean. 
27T. Those flowing into the eastern seas. 278. Extent of the surface drained into the in- 
land seas ? Principal continental rivers of Asia ? Into what seas or lakes do they re- 
spectively flow V 279. What is said of the Nile ? How formed ? Source of the NUe? 
How far has its course been traced ? 



AFRICAN RIVERS. 87 

cnannel of the river. The source of the Nile — calling the head 
waters of the Bahr-el-Abiad its real source — has not yet been 
visited by Europeans, but its course has been traced upward to 
within four degrees of north latitude, and there is reason to be- 
lieve that it rises to the southward of the equator. 

280. Though the Nile has so great a length of course — prob- 
ably not much short of 3,500 miles — its basin is of very limited 
extent. For a distance of 1,400 miles above its mouth it re- 
ceives no tributary. Through the middle and lower portion of 
its course, the Nile flows in a narrow valley inclosed on either 
side by steep rocks : the width of this valley varies from one to 
two miles in Nubia and Upper Egypt to as many as ten or twelve 
miles lower down the stream 

281. The Niger (or Quorra) is the largest of the African riv- 
ers which flows into the Atlantic Ocean. It rises in the mount- 
ains of Soudan, where the main tributary is known as the Joliba, 
pursues a northeasterly course to the neighborhood of Timbuctoo, 
thence a southeasterly course, passing through a wide opening of 
the Kong Mountains, and enters the eastern extremity of the 
Gulf of Guinea by several mouths. The length of the Niger is 
perhaps about 2,300 miles : above the place of its passage through 
the Kong Mountains, it receives the waters of the Chadda, a 
broad and deep tributary. The Niger has been ascended by a 
steamboat to more than two hundred miles above the junction of 
the Chadda, but the extreme unhealthiness of the climate, in the 
district through which its lower course lies, has contributed to 
the failure of many attempts made to explore this part of Africa, 
and to establish commercial relations with the inhabitants. 

282. Besides the Niger, the principal rivers upon the west 
coasts of Africa are the Senegal, the Gambia, the Rio Grande, 
the Rokelle, the Volta, the Zaire or Congo, the Coanza, and the 
Gariep or Orange. Both the Senegal (900 miles) ^nd the Gam- 
bia (650 miles) are navigable rivers : they flow in a westerly di- 
rection, and draw their waters from the same mountain ranges in 



Questi(yns.—2S0. Length ? Basin ? Width of the valley in different parts ? 281. The 
Niger ? Its source, direction, and termination ? Length ? How far ascended by a steam- 
boat ? The climate of the district in which its lower course lies ? 2S2. Other principal 
rivers upon the west coasts of Africa ? The Senegal and the Gambia ? The Gariep ? The 
principal river upon the eastern side ? Other rivers ? 



88 LAKES. 

which are the sources of the Niger. The Gariep, or Orange 
River, in the southern part of Africa, has a length of upward of 
1,000 miles. The principal river upon the eastern side of Africg 
is the Zambesi, whiel brings down a great volume of water, and 
is said to be navigable for boats through a distance of more than 
900 miles. The Li*fij., Juba, and many other rivers of the east- 
ern coast, have not been explored, and are but little known. 



LESSON X. 

LAKES. 

283. Fresh-water lakes occur in the greatest numbers, and 
upon the largest scale, in the northern regions of the globe. 
Nearly all the lakes of any considerable extent in North America 
are situated north of the 40th parallel, while in Europe and Asia, 
the regions peculiarly characterized by fresh-water collections 
are, for the most part, north of the 50th parallel. Salt-water 
lakes have a more southerly distribution, and are very abundant 
in eastern Europe, and central and southern Asia. 

284. Lakes maybe divided into four classes, according to cer- 
tain physical peculiarities. The^r^^ class includes those which 
have no outlet, and do not receive any running water. Lake 
Albano, near Rome, is an example. Many of these lakes are 
situated in elevated districts, and are generally small : it has 
been supposed that they are the craters of extinct volcanoes, and 
are supplied by springs 

285. The second class comprises those which receive water, 
but have no apparent outlets. The Caspian Sea and Lake Aral 
belong to this division. The Caspian is about 600 miles long : 
its extreme breadth is 300 miles, though its average breadth is not 
more than 100 miles. This most remarkable lake receives the 
waters of the Volga, a river which has a course of 2,200 miles, 

QuesUons.~^2%Z. Where are fresh-water lakes most abundant ? In North America ? In 
Europe and Asia ? Salt-water lakes ? 284. Into how many classes may lakes be divided ? 
First class? Example, Situation of these lakes, etc. ? 285. Second class? Examples. 
The Caspian ? What waters are tributary to it ? 



LAKES. 89 

and brings down more than 518,000,000 cubic feet of water 
every hour. The Ural, and many other streams of consider- 
able magnitude, are also received by the Caspian; but its level 
IS not changed, though it has no perceptible outlet by which to 
discharge the water it receives. 

286. Lake Aral presents the same phenomena, and, though 
not to be compared in extent to the Caspian, receives two large 
rivers, the Sihoon and Amoo, or Jihon. The difficulty in explain- 
ing the nature of these lakes is to account for the constancy of 
their level, which might be expected to rise considerably, as they 
are daily receiving so large a body of water. The opinion was 
once entertained that they are connected by some internal chan- 
nel with the sea, and it was supported by the fact that the water 
of both the Caspian and Lake Aral is salt, and contains marine 
productions ; but it has been ascertained that the Caspian is not 
less than 84 feet below the level of the Black Sea, thus com- 
pletely disproving the hypothesis that they have a connection. 
It is thought that the phenomena referred to may be accounted 
for by evaporation and filtration. Besides the Caspian Sea and 
Lake Aral, there are -numerous other bodies of water of this 
class, the receptacles of the continental rivers. (See table of 
Continental Rivers page 74.) 

287. A third class comprehends all those lakes which receive 
no streams, but give birth to some. Many of these lakes occupy 
very elevated situations, and are the sources of some of the 
largest rivers. They are no doubt supplied by springs, the waters 
of which rise in their reservoirs until its level is sufficiently 
high to admit a discharge. The lake in Monte Rotondo, in Cor- 
sica, is one of this class, and is situated 9,000 feet above the 
level of the sea. 

288. The fourth class includes all those lakes which both 
receive and discharge water, being by far the most numerous 
division. They commonly receive the waters of many rivers, 
and have but one outlet. The origin of such rivers is easily 

Questions. — 286. Lake Aral ? Opinion formerly entertained ? How supported ? How 
is this hypothesis disproved ? How may the constant level be accounted for ? What other 
lakes belong to this class? 287. Third class? What is said of many of the lakes of this 
class ? How supplied ? Monte Kotondo ? 288. Fourth class ? How is the origin of such 
lakes explained ? 



90 NORTH AMERICAN LAKES. 

explained. Should a hollow present itself in the course of a 
river, it is evident that it must be filled to the level of some part 
of its banks before the river can proceed, and this would produce 
a lake. But it may happen that there is a general declivity from 
various parts of a district toward some central valley, and then 
the waters of a number of rivers may be brought into it, while 
at the same time the continuation gives but one course by which 
the waters can be discharged. A description of some of the 
largest lakes of this class will be given in the next lesson. 

289. Most lakes occur at varying elevations above the level of 
the sea, while some are much below it. The highest knovirn lake 
in the world is Sir-i-kol, in Asia. It is the source of the Amoo 
River, and is 15,600 feet above the level of the ocean. Lake 
Titicaca, in Bolivia, has an elevation of 12,785 feet ; Tzana, or 
Dembea, in Abyssinia, 6,076 feet; Lake Baikal, in Asia, 1,793 
feet; Constance, 1,299 feet; Geneva, 1,229 feet; Great Salt 
Lake, in Utah Territory, 4,200 feet ; Superior, 623 feet ; Huron 
and Michigan, 591 feet ; Erie, 565 feet ; Ontario, 234 feet. The 
Caspian Sea, Lake of Tiberias, and the Dead Sea, are each be- 
low the sea-level, — the first 84 feet, the second 600 feet, and 
the third 1,316 feet.* 



LESSON XL 

LAKES — (continued). 

290. North American Lakes. — The largest lakes in North 
A.merica are Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, 
"Which are connected with the sea by the channel of the river 
St. Lawrence ; Winnipeg, which is drained by the river Nelson 
into the Hudson Bay; and the Athabasca, Great Slave, and 
Great Bear, which empty their waters into streams tributary to 
the Arctic Ocean. 

Questions. — 289. Varying elevations and depressions of lakes? Highest known lake, 
its elevation, etc. ? Give the elevations of the other lakes mentioned. State the depres- 
sions of the Caspian, Lake of Tiberias, and the Dead Sea. 290. Which are the largest 
lakes in North America, and how drained ? 

* According to the measurement made by Lieutenant Lynch, in 1848, the exact deprw- 
eion of the Dead Sea below the Mediterranean was found to be 1,816-T feet 



NORTH AMERICAN LAKES. 91 

291. Lake Superior is the largest fresh-water formation on 
the globe, computed to have an area of 40,000 square miles; 
length 420 miles ; extreme breadth, 165 ; height above the level 
of the Atlantic, 623 feet; greatest depth 1,200 feet. There is 
reason to believe, from the appearance of the shores, that the 
waters of this, as well as the other Canadian lakes, formerly oc- 
cupied a much higher level than they reach at present. The 
amount of water carried off by its outlet, the river of St. Mary, 
is much less than that received by its tributaries, from which 
circumstance it is inferred that the evaporation from its surface 
must be very great. 

292. Lake Huron, remarkable for its brilliant transparency, 
has an area of 25,000 square miles. It is about 240 miles in 
length, from 180 to 220 in breadth, and is 591 feet above the 
level of the sea. The outline of this lake is very irregular, and 
its shores are described as consisting of clay cliffs, rolled stones, 
abrupt rocks, and wooded steeps. The greatest depth of Lake 
Huron is found to be nowhere more than 450 feet. Lake Mich- 
igan, which lies wholly within the United States, is connected 
with Lake Huron by means of the navigable channel Mackinaw. 
It is about 300 miles long, and has an area of about 25,000 
square miles. 

293. Lake Erie has an area of about 11,000 square miles : its 
surface is 565 feet above the sea. This lake is said to be the 
only one in the whole Canadian chain in which there is any per- 
ceptible current, a circumstance which is supposed to be attrib- 
utable to its comparative shallowness, its average depth being 
not more than 60 or 80 feet. The current of Lake Erie, which 
runs always in one direction, combined with the great prevalence 
of westerly winds, and the occurrence of sunken reefs and 
rocky banks, form serious obstacles to the safe and easy naviga- 
tion of this lake. The shallowness of the water of Lake Erie 
likewise causes it to be more readily and more permanently af- 
fected by frost, so that its navigation is usually obstructed by 
ice for some weeks every winter, Avhile that of the other lakes 
continues open and unimpeded. 

Questions. — 291. Give particulars of Lake Superior. Change of level ? 292. Give par- 
ticulars of Lake Huron. Lake Michigan. 293. Lake Erie. What is said of its current? 
Its navigability ? 



92 



NOETH AMEEICAN LAKES, 



294. Lake Ontario has a computed area of 10,000 square 
miles, 234 feet above the sea-level, and 331 feet below the level 
of Lake Erie. Its depth is said to be very great, and it is nav- 
igable throughout its w^hole extent for the largest ships. Its out- 
let is a spacious channel studded with islands, collectively de- 
nominated the Thousand Isles, but no less than 1,692 have been 
actually counted. 

295. Lake Champlain (about 500 square miles) belongs to the 
same basin as the great lakes above described, and is connected 
with the St. Lawrence by the river Richelieu. Lake George, 




tVmf^LOCELYN-A^'^'^- 



Lake George 



noted for its picturesque scenery, and for the transparency of its 
waters, is situated west of the southern extremity of Lake Cham- 
plain, with which it is connected by a short stream. It is about 
30 miles long, and from 1 to 2 miles broad. 

296. The Great Salt Lake (about 2,600 square miles), situ- 
ated in the great basin between the Rocky Mountains and the 



Questions. — 294. Give particulars of Lake Ontario. The Thousand Isles. 
Champlain. Lalce George. 296. Great Salt Lake. What are its waters ? 



295. Lake 



EUROPEAN LAKES. 93 

Sierra Nevada (111), is about 70 miles in length, from 30 to 35 
miles in breadth, and is about 4,200 feet above the level of the 
sea. Its waters are saturated with common salt, and when the 
lake is low, considerable quantities of this substance are precip- 
itated to the bottom of the lake, or, rather, are there crystallized. 
No living animal can exist in this lake. It receives the waters 
of the Bear, Weber, and other rivers, but, like other lakes in this 
region, has no connection with the ocean. 

297. Upon the Mexican plateau is the large lake of Chapala 
(about 650 square miles), which is discharged into the Pacific 
by the river Santiago. Lake Nicaragua (about 3,500 square 
miles), in Central America, lies at an elevation of about 128 feet 
above the sea. The distance between its western shore and 
the coast of the Pacific is only eleven miles ; it is drained by 
the San Juan, which flows into the Caribbean Sea. 

298. South American Lakes. — South America has few 
lakes of any great extent.. The largest is Lake Titicaca (about 
3,800 square miles), situated on a plateau of that name, at an 
elevation of 12,785 feet, and surrounded by some of the highest 
summits of the Andes. The water of Lake Titicaca is fresh; a 
river called the Desaguadero, which leaves its southern extremity, 
flows into the smaller lake (or marsh) of Aullagas, or Uros, which 
lies at 490 feet lower level, and the water of which is salt. 

299. Lake Maracayho (5,000 square miles), near the coast of 
the Caribbean Sea, is connected by a narrow strait with the 
Gulf of Maracaybo, and has brackish water. The Lake dos Patos 
and Lake Mirim are on the southeast coast of Brazil. 



LESSON XII. , 

LAKES — [continued) . 

300. European Lakes. — There are two principal lake-re- 
gions in Europe, one lying around the Baltic, and situated within 

Questions. — 297. Give pnrticulars of Lake Chapala. Lake Nicaragua. 29S. Wliat is 
eaid of South America? Lake Titicaca ? 299. Lake Maracaybo ? Other lakes? 300. How 
many lake-regions are there in Europe, and where are they respectively situated ? How 
are the lakes of each division characterized ? 



94: 



EUROPEAN LAKES. 



its basin ; and the other embracing the Alpine system of mount- 
ains. The lakes situated in the former of these regions possess, 
in general, greater magnitude, while the latter are distinguished 
by their great elevation above the sea, and by the grandeur of 
the scenery among which they lie. 

301. The following Tables give the dimensions of the principal 
European lakes, together with their elevation and greatest depth, 
where these particulars have been ascertained. 

Lakes situated round the Baltic. 



In Russia — Ladoga 

Onega 

Ilmen 

Peipous, or Tchoudskoe 

Pskov 

Bieloe 

Saima 

Enara* 

In Sweden — ^Wener 

Wetter 

Maelar 



Area in 
Sq. Miles 



6,330 
3,280 

390 
1,250 

280 

420 
2,000 
1,200 
2,136 

840 



Ileiffht. 



144 

288 




Depth. 



288 
432 



Lakes belonging to the Alpine System. 





Area in 
3q. Miles. 


Height. 


Depth. 


Ttm Stji7't't'7:t'"r t. a ivt) — (renevaj ......... - 


240 

115 

99 

76 

228 

150 

250 

152 

66 

183 


1,230 

1,437 

1,430 

1,332 

1,299 

350 

918 

678 

684 

320 


1,012 

426 

600 

600 

964 

13 

36 

2,622 

600 


Neufchatel 




Zurich 


Constance, or Boden See 
In Hungary— Neusiedler See 

Balaton, or Flatten See. 
In Italy— Lago Maggiore 


Garda 





302. Lakes are very numerous in Scotland, especially in the 
middle and northern parts. They are mostly long and narrow 



Q'iiestions.— 301. What is the area of Lake Ladoga ? Of Onega ? Of other lakes in 
Eussia ? Give particulars of Lake Wener. Of other lakes in Sweden. Of Geneva. Of 
other lakes in Switzerland. Of Lago Maggiore. Of other lakes in Italy. 302. What is 
said of the lakes in Scotland ? Loch Lomond ? 



* The waters of Lake Enara, however, communicate with the Arctic Ocean, not with 
the Baltic. 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN LAKES. 95, 

bodies of water, occupying the deep hollows within the elevated 
mountain- valleys. The largest lake in Scotland, and also in 
Great Britain, is Loch Lomond (45 square miles), which is 24 
miles in length, and 7 miles in its greatest breadth. 

303. Of the lakes in Ireland the largest is Lough Neagh (150 
square miles), situated in the north of Ireland, and the Lakes of 
Killarney (three in number), noted for their beautiful scenery in 
the south. 

304. Asiatic Lakes. — The largest fresh-water lake in Asia 
is Lake Baikal, situated among the northern offsets of the Altai 
mountain-system: it has an area of about 15,000 square miles, 
and lies at an elevation of 1,793 feet above the level of the sea. 
Its water is fresh, and abounds in fish. It is annually frozen over 
for a period of five or six months, and may be traversed on 
sledges 

305. Among the smaller lakes of Asia are Balkashi, Oubsa, 
Zaisang, Issyk, Bosteng, Lop, Koko-nor, Bouka-nor, and Tengri- 
nor — all on or adjacent to the high plateaus in the interior of 
the continent ; — Tong-ting and Poyang, in China ; — Zurrah and 
Bakhtegan (both salt), on the plateaus of Afghanistan and Per- 
sia ; — Urumiyah, Van, and Goukcha (the two former of which 
are salt), on the Armenian table-land ; — the salt lake of Koch- 
hissar, in Asia Minor ; — ^with Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea 
in Palestine. 

306. African Lakes. — The largest body of inland water 
known in Africa is Lake Tsad, which lies in the central part of 
the contiiient and is several thousand square miles in area. Its 
waters are very shallow, though fresh and clear. It is not 
known to have an outlet, but it probably has a channel of dis- 
charge like all fresh-water lakes. 

307. Of the other African lakes are Lake Dibhie, through 
which the Quorra passes, and Lake Tzana, or Dembea, in Abys- 
sinia. A large lake, called Ngami (or " the Great Water"), has 
recently been discovered in the southern part of Africa, near the 
20th parallel, lying at an elevation 2,800 feet above the sea. 

Questions. — 303. Lakea in Ireland ? 304. Give particulars of Lake Baikal. 305. What 
other Asiaticlakes are mentioned ? 306. Give particulars of Lake Chad. SOT. Of o'ih«e 
African lak««. 



06 



THE OCEAN 



LESSON XIII. 



THE OCEAN. 

308. The vast body of water which surrounds the land and 
penetrates its coast, is comprehended under the general name of 
the ocean. For convenience sake it is divided "into five portions, 
named, respectively, the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and 
Antarctic oceans. These, with their branches, are as follows : 



Arctic Ocean . . 



Atlantic Ocean 



Pacific Ocean. 



Indian Ocean 



Antarctic Ocean. 



I. 

^ Extends from the northern 
shores of America, Europe, 
Asia, and the arctic circle 
around the north pole 

n. 

Bounded on the west by Amer- 
ica ; east by Europe and Afri- 
ca; north by the arctic, and 
south by the antarctic circle 
— divided by the equator into 
the North and South Atlantic 

ni. 

Inclosed between America on 
the east; Asia, the Sunda 
Isles, and Australia on the 
west ; and the arctic circle on 
the north ; the antarctic on 
the south — divided by the 
equator into the North and 
South Pacific 

IV. 
Bounded by Africa on the 
west ; the Sunda Isles and 
Australia on the east ; south- 
ern Asia on the north ; and 
the antarctic circle on the 
south 



Branches. 
Baf&n'sBay. 
White Sea. 
Gulf of Kara. 
Gulf of Obi. 

Baltic with its gulfs. 
North Sea. 
Mediterranean. 
Black Sea, 
Hudson's Bay. 
Gulf of Mexico. 
Caribbean Sea. 

Sea of China. 
Yellow Sea. 
Sea of Japan. 
Sea of Okhotsk. 
Sea of Kamtchatka. 
Behrings Strait. 
Gulf of California. 
Bay of Panama. 



Red Sea. 
Arabian Sea. 
Persian Gulf. 
Bengal Sea. 



Extends 



V. 

from the 



antarctic 



circle around the south pole 



'} 



Qioestiom.—SGS. Under what general name is the vast body of water which surround* 
the land comprehended? How is it divided? Describe the situation, and mention the 
principal brancbes of the Arctie Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic 



THE AKCTIC OCEAN. 97 

309. The Arctic Ocean has been but partially explored. Va- 
rious efforts have been made to reach its higher latitudes, but, up 
to this time, they have proved unsuccessful, in consequence of 
the impenetrable fields of ice which are met with, and the impos- 
sibility of remaining in those regions, with safety, for a great 
length of time. During the winter months the waters of the 
Arctic Ocean are covered with ice, which in summer is broken 
up, and drifted into lower latitudes where it is dissolved. 




Scene in the Arctic Ocean 

310. The floating masses of ice in the Arctic waters are of 
two kinds, sheet-ice and icebergs, which have quite an inde- 
pendent origin. Sheet-ice is that which is formed by the freez- 
ing of the ocean's surface, and is generally level like that of 
lakes ; it rises from 2 to 8 feet out of the water. Yast fields, 
20 or 30 miles in diameter, have been found in the Arctic Ocean : 
sometimes they extend 100 miles, so closely packed together 
that no opening is left between them. Smaller sheets are called 
floes. Fields and floes, when much broken up, the fragments 
crowding together, form what is called pack-ice, which when 
much elongated is called a stream. When the parts of a pack 
are loose and open, so that a vessel may sail between them, it is 
called drift-ice. 

Questions. — 309. What is said of the Arctic Ocean ? Why have the efiforts made to reach 
its higher latitiules been unsuccessful? 310. Of what two Ivinds nre the floating masses of 
ice ? Describe the sheet-ice. Its extent. Floes. Tacli-ice. Streams. Drift-ice. 

5 



98 



THE AKCTIC OCEAN, 



311„ In 1850, Lieut. De Hayen, commanding the Grinnell Expedition in 
search of Sir John Franklin, proceeded into the Arctic Ocean a considerable 
distance north of Wellington Channel. Here, in the early part of October, 
■vrhile drifting about among large masses of floating ice, his yessels (two in 
number) were frozen in so firmly that it was impossible, with all the means 
at command, to disengage them from the ice. In this state they were drift- 
ed back through Wellington Channel and Lancaster Sound into Baffin'sBay, 
thence southeasterly through this bay to about latitude 66° north, where 
after having been confined in the ice nearly eight months, and having drift- 
ed not less probably than 1,^00 miles, they were liberated from their icy 
fetters. 




Icebergs. 

312. Icebergs d^re. fresh-water formations; and, towering like 
cliffs to a considerable height, they present a very different as- 
pect from ice-fields. They are produced on the shores of arctic 
lands by the freezing of melted snow, like the glaciers of Switz- 
erland. The frozen masses projecting into the sea, yield to its 
undermining and wrenching power, by which immense blocks 
are broken off, constituting icebergs. These huge masses are 
drifted southward 2,000 miles from the places of their origin to 

Questimis.—ZW. What part of the Arctic Ocean was reached by tieut. De Haven? 
What subsequently happened to bis vessels ? How long were they confined and how far 
did ihey drift ? 312. What are icebergs ? How produced ? How far south do they some- 
times drift ? 



' - THE OCEAN. \)\) 

melt in the Atlantic, where they cool the water and air to a great 
distance around. Icebergs vary from a few yards to miles in 
circumference, and are often 1,000 feet high. 

313, It is supposed that the point of the greatest cold is in 
the vicinity of Melville Island, and that to the north and west of 
it, there is, in summer, a comparatively open sea, or " Polynja." 
The latter opinion is supported by the fact that beasts and fowls 
are known to migrate over the ice from the mouth of Mackenzie 
River, and its neighboring shores to the north. In further con- 
firmation of this conjecture, Lieut, De Haven reported that as he 
entered Wellington Channel the signs of animal life became 
more abundant ; and Captain Penny, commander of an English 
expedition, who penetrated on sledges farther toward the north 
than it was possible for De Haven to do, reported that he actually 
arrived on the borders of this open sea. 

314, The Atlantic Ocean is the best known of any of the 
divisions of the great deep, it being the highway of the world's 
commerce, and constantly traversed by hosts of vessels in which 
millions of property and thousands of lives are embarked. It 
extends upward of 9,000 miles from north to south, with a width 
varying from little more than 900 miles between Norway and 
Greenland, to 1,700 miles between Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, 
and the coast of Sierra Leone, in Africa. 

315, The North Atlantic, though generally very deep, is re- 
markable for immense shoals occurring in the North Sea, and to 
the southeast of Newfoundland. It is also noted for the im- 
mense portion of its surface occupied by sea-weed (fucus natans), 
closely matted together, forming what is sometimes known as the 
" Grassy Sea " A region of this weed extends along the me- 
ridian of 40° west longitude, and between the latitudes 20° and 
45° north, bearing the name of " Banks of Fucus." It occurs 
thence in varying quantities to the Bahamas, the area occupied 
being equal to 1 ,000,000 geographical square miles and upward, — 
more than one third the extent of the whole territory of the United 
States. 

QueHiojVi —SIS. Supposed point of the greatest cold ? Open sea or '■■ Polynja" ? Con- 
firmation of this conjecture ? 314. The Atlantic Ocean? Its extent? 315. The North 
Atlantic ? For what noted ? Where are Ihe Banks of Fucus situated ? Where else does 
it occur ? Extent of the sea so occupied ? 



100 TEMPEKATURE OF THE OCEAN. 

316. The Pacific Ocean has about twice the area of the At- 
lantic, extending upward of 9,000 miles from north to south, and 
from east to west 12,000 miles. It was so called by the early 
navigators on account of its peaceful aspect, as contrasted with 
the stormy seas of Cape Horn, It is remarkable for the number 
of its islands, and for submarme coral formations, which render 
navigation difficult and dangerous. 

317. The Indian Ocean extends upward of 6,000 miles, from 
the tropic of Cancer, at the head of the Arabian Sea, to the ant- 
arctic circle ; and has its greatest breadth, amounting to 5,000 
miles, between the south point of Africa and Van Diemen's 
Land. It is remarkable for its hurricanes and monsoons, which 
will be treated of in another division. 

318. The Antarctic Ocean presents features similar to the 
Arctic, but the ice extends farther from the south than from the 
opposite pole. Its waters are almost always agitated; there is 
a perpetual swell, and terrific storms are common. Packed ice 
occurs to an immense extent. Sir James Ross passed through 
a belt upward of 800 miles broad. 

319. The discoveries, m 1840, of Commodore Wilkes, com- 
mander of the United States Exploring Expedition, established 
the fact that there is a vast antarctic continent near the south 
pole. Victoria Land, the most southern land known, was dis- 
covered in the same year by Sir James Ross, who penetrated 
to latitude 70° south, the point nearest the south pole ever yet 
reached. 



LESSON XIV. 
THE OCEAN — {continued). 



320. The temperature of the ocean, though varying in differ- 
ent latitudes, is more uniform than that of the land. Thus, in 
equatorial regions, the difference in the temperature of the air 

Questions.— ^\&. What is said of the Pacific Ocean ? Why so called ? For what re- 
markable? 317. The Indian Ocean? For what remarkable? 31S. Antarctic Ocean? 
State of its waters? Packed ice? 319. The discoveries of Commodore Wilkes? Of Sir 
James Ross ? 820. What is said of the temperature of the ocean? Illustrate. 



I COLOR OF THE OCEAN. 101 

near the surface of the sea, by day and night, does not appear to 
exceed three or four degrees. In temperate climates the diurnal 
range of temperature is rather greater, but it is by no means equal 
to that on land, 

321. From numerous observations of the temperature of the 
ocean the following facts have been deduced: 1. The temper- 
ature of the surface of the ocean is generally lower at raid-day 
than that of the atmosphere in the shade. 2. It is always higher 
at midnight. 3. Morning and evening the two temperatures 
usually correspond. 4. The mean temperature of the surface of 
the ocean far from land is greater than that of the atmosphere 
with which it is in contact. 5. The water is colder where it is 
shallow than where it is of great depth. 6. The seasonal changes 
of the temperature of the air do not affect the ocean beyond the 
depth of 300 feet. 7. The greatest heat of the surface, 88° 5^ of 
Fahrenheit, is found in the Gulf of Mexico, and in one of the 
havens of New Guinea. 

322. The color of the ocean is generally of a deep bluish green, 
but it varies with every gleam of sunshine or passing cloud, from 
the deepest indigo to green, and even to a slaty gray. It is dif- 
ferent in different localities, depending upon local causes. It is 
^vhite in the Gulf of Guinea and black around the Maldives. Be- 
tween China and Japan it is yellowish, and west of the Canaries 
and Azores it is green. In some parts, as off California, it has a 
Vermillion hue ; in others, as the eastern division of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, a purple tint prevails. 

323. These various shades are, in most instances, caused by 
myriads of marine animalcules which pervade the deep ; and 
the magnificent appearance, known as the phosphorescence of 
the ocean, is owing to the phosphorescent brilliancy of these 
microscopic tribes. The bed of the ocean, in shallow places, 
often imparts a tinge to the superincumbent waters, while the 
gray or turbid appearance, near the mouths of large rivers, arises 
from the sediment washed in from the land. 

Questions. — 321. What is said of the temperature of the surface of the ocean at mid-day ? 
At midnight? Morning and evening? Of the mean temperature of the ocean far from 
land? Of shallow -water? Depths affected by seasonal changes ? Where is the greatest 
heat of the surface found? 322. Color of the ocean? Mention its hues in different local- 
ities. 823. How are these shades generally caused ? What other causes affect its color? 



102 



DEPTH OF THE OCEAN, 




The Ocean. 



324. The depth of the ocean was, until recently, a subject of 
speculation only. The experiments made during the past few 

years have added more to 
our knowledge of the depth 
of the ocean and the shape 
of the oceanic basins, par- 
ticularly that of the Atlan- 
tic, than was ever before 
known. 

325. Like the dry land, 
the bottom of the sea is di- 
versified with slopes, plains, 
table-lands, eminences ab- 
ruptly projecting to within a 
few feet of the surface, or 
just peering above the waves, 
and with enormous depressions. It has been generally supposed 
that the depth of the sea is about equal to the height of the land, 
the lowest valleys of the ocean's bed corresponding with the 
summits of the loftiest mountains. 

326. The recent experiments caused to be made by Lieut. 
Maury, of the National Observatory, seem likely to confirm this 
conjecture. Before he undertook the subject, there had been no 
well-directed efforts made to ascertain the depths of the deep 
sea. Navigators had, indeed, tied weights to lines, and thrown 
those weights overboard with the view of ascertaining the depth, 
but the lines were often unwieldy, and there was no certain 
means of knowing whether the plummet had reached the bottom, 
or, if it had reached the bottom, when. 

327. Recent investigation has led to the supposition that there 
is in the ocean, as in the air, a system of circulation, which, by 
currents and counter currents, upper and under currents, keeps 
the waters of the sea perpetually in motion. For it has been 
found that, generally speaking, when a sounding has been made 



Questions. — 324. What is said of the depth of the ocean? Recent experiments? 825. 
How is the bottom of the sea diversified ? What was generally supposed respecting the 
depth of the sea? 326. What is said of former efforts to ascertain the depth of the sea? 
827. To what supposition has recent investigation led? What circumstances favored this 
supposition? 



• DEPTH OF THE OCEAN. 103 

in the deep sea, though the vessel from which it is made be per- 
fectly at rest, and though it be known that the plummet has 
reached the bottom, yet the line will continue to run out, and un- 
less it be suffered to run out, or the plummet be detached from it, 
a strain so great is brought upon it that it invariably breaks. It 
is the undertow, or a system of currents and counter currents 
below, which it is supposed produces this strain. 

328. Most of the vessels of the navy are now furnished with 
twine made especially for deep-sea soundings ; and the results 
already obtained have enabled the officers at the National Ob- 
servatory to construct a map^ of the basin of. the North Atlantic 
Ocean, which shows the depressions of the solid parts of the 
earth's crust below the sea-level, and which gives us, perhaps, as 
good an idea of the profile there as geographers have of the con- 
trasts afforded by the elevations of the land in the interior of 
Australia. 

329. The deepest soundings ever reported were made in the 
North and in the South Atlantic Ocean. I^ieut. J. C. Walsh, 
commander U. S. schooner Taney, being furnished with a large 
quantity of iron wire made expressly for the purpose, obtained, 
on the 15th November, 1849, lat. 31° 59' N., long. 58° 43' W., a 
cast of the plummet, when after 34,200 feet had run out, the wire 
parted without reaching bottom, as it was thought. On the 12th 
of Feb., 1853, Lieut. Berryman, of the Dolphin, in lat. 32° 55' N., 
long. 47° 58' W., obtained a cast of the lead, using the small 
twine as a sounding line. At this trial 39,600 feet ran out, when 
the line parted, and it was consequently thought that the plum- 
met had not reached the bottom. On the 5th of April, 1852, lat. 
36° S., long. 440 IP W., Lieut. Parker, of the U. S. frigate 
Congress, using a 32 lb. cannon ball for his plummet, and sound- 
ing twine like that of Berryman's, made an experiment at deep- 
sea soundings, when 49,800 feet of line ran out before it parted. 
The time occupied for this sounding was eight hours and a 
quarter. 

330. The next great sounding was made by Capt. Denham, of 

Questions.— S28. With what are most of the vessels of the navy provided ? Results ob- 
tained ? 329. When have the deepest soundings been made ? Give particulars of the 
sounding made by Lieut J. C. Walsh. By Lieut. Berryman. By Lieut. Parker. 830. By 
Capt Denham. What is thought of these soundings by the light of subsequent experiments ? 



1Q4: DEPTH OF THE OCEAN. * 

H. M. ship Herald, 30th October, 1852, lat. 36° 49^ S , long. 
37° 06' W., with 46,236 feet. He had been furnished with 
sounding twiue from the U. S. frigate Congress, and instead of 
a 32 lb. shot, his sinker was a 9 lb. lead. By the light which 
subsequent experience has thrown upon the subject of deep-sea 
soundings, all four of these immense depths have had their ac- 
curacy questioned, and it is believed with reason. 

331. An instrument has been invented by Passed Midshipman 
J. M. Brooke, of the U. S. Navy, which enables the officers who 
now attempt deep-sea soundings to detach the plummet from the 
line the moment it strikes the bot^pm, and then to haul up, at- 
tached to the line, specimens of the bottom. In this way speci- 
mens have been obtained from the depth of 12,000 feet,(about 2^ 
miles). These specimens have been examined with a microscope 
by Prof. Bailey at West Point, and found to consist entirely of 
minute sea-shells, not a particle of sand or gravel, or any foreign 
matter being among them. 'From this it is inferred that the wa- 
ter at the bottom of the sea is comparatively at rest. 

332. The deepest part of the North Atlantic Ocean is prob- 
ably a little to the south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. 
There is a place there somewhat in the shape of a boot, which 
none of the officers of the navy have so far been able to fathom. 
The deepest soundings that have been satisfactorily made show 
that, in all other parts, the North Atlantic Ocean is not more 
than 25,000 feet in depth. The soundings which have been 
made by the navy have established the fact that there is a pla- 
teau, or shelf^ at the bottom of the ocean between Newfoundland 
and Ireland, quite shallow enough for the wires of a submarine 
telegraph, and quite deep enough to keep, them beyond the reach 
of icebergs. 

Questio7is.—3Sl. How have specimens of the bottom of the ocean been obtained ? Of 
what have these specimens been found to consist? 332. Where is the deepest part of the 
North Atlantic supposed to be? What do the soundings show with respect to the depth 
of the North Atlantic ii* all other parts? What other important fact has been established 
by these soundings ? 



WAVES OF THE OCEAN. 105 



LESSON XV. 

THE OCEAN — (continued). 

333. The ocean is subject to a motion of three different kinds : 
it is agitated by the action of the wind, producing waves ; by 
tides, which result from the attraction of the moon and sun ; and 
by currents, produced under various circumstances, and resulting 
from a variety of causes. 

334. Waves are produced by the action of the winds on the 
surface of the water, and vary in size from mere ripples to enor- 
mous billows. Their height in open seas depends upon the 
force and duration of the wind, and the angle at which it bears 
down upon the waters ; but in lakes and bays it is affected by the 
shallowness of the waters and the character of the shores ; on 
which account the shallow waters of Lake Erie are more readily 
disturbed by winds than the deeper lakes, Ontario and Huron. 

335. Waves are not, as appearances would indicate, an on- 
ward flow of water. This is proved from the fact that a floating 
body merely rises and falls with very little or no progression. 
Waves agitate the water but a little way below the surface, and 
it is supposed that the effect of the strongest gales does not ex- 
tend below the depth of 200 feet. 

336. The crest of a wave (b, h) is the ridge or highest part, 
and in strong winds is usually 

covered with foam ; the trough i I 

(c) is the depression between 
two waves, and is as much be- 
low, as the crest is above, the 

general level of the ocean. In estimating the elevation of a 
wave, the perpendicular height from the trough to the crest is taken. 

337. Waves are sometimes said to run mountains high, but 
this is a popular exaggeration The highest rise noticed in the 
Mediterranean is 16 feet, and 20 feet off Australia. During a 

Questions. — 333. What are the three different kinds of motion to which the ocean is 
subject ? 334. How are waves produced, and how do they vary ? Upon what does 
their height depend ? How is the height affected in lakes and bays ? 335. How is it 
proved that waves are not an onward flow of water ? 336. What is the crest of a wave ? 
The trough? 337. Give instances to show the height of graves. 

5* 



106 TIDES OF THE OCEAN. * 

storm in the Bay of Biscay, the highest waves measured scarcely 
36 feet from the base to the summit. In the South Atlantic the 
result of several experiments gave only an entire height of 22 
feet, and a velocity for the undulations of 89 miles per hour, the 
interval between each wave amounting to 1,910 feet. Off the 
Gape of Good Hope, notoriously the cape of storms, according 
to its former name, 40 feet is considered the extreme height of 
waves, or 20 feet above and below the general level of the ocean,* 

338. The sea does not regain its placidity immediately after 
the subsidence of the winds which set it in motion, but continues 
to heave with mighty undulations for a considerable time after- 
ward. This movement is called the " swell." It frequently oc- 
curs, that while the swell is advancing in one direction, the wind 
rises from an opposite quarter, producing a series of compound 
waves, and giving to the deep a very complex aspect. 

339. Tides are those regular alternate risings and fallings of 
the waters of the ocean and of bays, rivers, etc., which commu- 
nicate freely with it. They arise from the attractive influence 
of the sun and mcon, the latter being the more powerful agent. 
The sea rises, or flows, as it is called, by degrees, about six 
hours ; it remains stationary about a quarter of an hour ; it then 
retires, or ebbs, during another six hours, to flow again after a 
brief repose. Thus high and low water occur twice every lunar 
day, or the period elapsing between the successive returns of 
the moon to the meridian of a place, which is 24 hours 50| 
minutes, 

340. The theory of the tides may be thus explained : Let E 

represent the earth surround- 
ed by water in every part, and 
m the moon. As a solid body 
draws toward it any other 
body, by a force which varies 
with its distance from the 
point attracted, then the water 

QuesUoTis.—^^. What is the movement of the sea called which continues after the sub- 
sidence of the winds? How are compound waves produced? 339. What are tides? 
From what do they arise? Describe the successive movements of the sea. 840. How 
may the theory of the tides be explained? 




* Rev. Thomas Milner. 



TIDES OF THE OOEAlf. lOT 

at a will be more powerfully attracted than those at e and/, and 
the result will be a bulging out of the water at a, immediately next 
the lunar body. 

341. But while high water is thus produced at a, it is also 
produced at the same time in the opposite hemisphere at d. 
Different causes have been assigned for this phenomenon, but it is 
probably likewise owing to the attractive influence of the moon. 
The earth's center, E, will be more powerfully drawn toward the 
moon than the waters at d, and recede from them, producing the 
same effect as though they receded or rose up from the center of 
the earth. As the waters can not rise in one place without fall- 
ing in another, they are depressed at e and/" when elevated at a 
and d. 

342. If the earth remained stationary upon its axis, there 
would be two elevations and depressions of the waters in each 
place in a month, or the time the moon is making her circuit 
round the earth. But by the diurnal rotation, the moon passes 
every day the meridian of every part of the globe, producing 
daily two seasons of high and low water. 

343. The time of high tide does not coincide with the time 
when the moon is on the meridian of the place, a period of sev- 
eral hours ordinarily intervening between the time of the moon's 
transit and that of high water. The explanation of this is, that 
the water, having received motion, continues to rise after the 
moon has passed from its meridian, the impulse continuing for 
some time after the moon's transit. 

344. Besides the attraction of the moon, the influence of the 
sun is concerned in elevating the waters of the ocean. The 
solar attraction is not so strong as the lunar, because, though a 
much larger body, the sun is at a far greater distance from the 
earth. The tidal influence of the sun has been calculated to be 
about one third that of the moon. 

345. Sometimes the sun and moon act in conjunction, as at 

Questions. — 341. Explain how high water will be produced in the hemisphere oppo- 
site the moon. 342. What would happen if the earth remained stationary ? What occurs by 
the diurnal rotation? 343. What is said of the time of high water? How explained? 
344. What is said of the influence of the sun on the tides ? 345. When do the spring-tides 
occur ? The neap-tides ? 




1^^ TIDES OF THE OCEAN, 

the seasons of new and full moon, a and d, and then the 
tides rise the highest, and are called spring-tides; but when 

the moon is in quadrature, as 
at b and c, it acts in opposi- 
tion to the sun, and then oc- 
cur the lowest, or neap-tides. 

346. Though high tides oc- 
cur in open seas soon after the 
moon has passed the meridian, 
yet in other places shoals and 
channels, peninsulas and capes, 
and the diversified form of 
shores, so retard the progress of the undulation, that high water 
happens at all distances of the moon from the meridian, and con- 
sequently at all hours of the day. Differences of local situation 
cause great differences as to the height to which the tide rises. In 
the central parts of the ocean the height is comparatively small, 
seldom exceeding three feet, but in rushing up contracted chan- 
nels the tide-water frequently causes a difference of twenty, 
thirty, and sixty feet between high and low water mark. 

347. The cradle of tides is supposed to be that part of the 
Pacific Ocean to the southeast of Australia. Proceeding from 
this quarter, a wave advances into the Indian Ocean, reaching 
the island of Sumatra, the southern point of Hindoostan, the 
island of Madagascar, and the Cape of Good Hope about the 
same time. (See map No. 1.) 

348. Entering the Atlantic, the wave proceeds northerly and 
westerly, bringing high water successively to all parts on the 
western shores of Africa, and eastern shores of America. It 
moves with much greater rapidity through the central parts of 
the ocean than along the coast — in consequence of which it 
reaches the islands of Cuba and Newfoundland, and Cape Blanco 
in Africa, simultaneously. The Atlantic coast of the United 

Questions.— Z'iQ What serve to retard the progress of the undulation ? What is said 
of the differences of local situation in aflFecting tides ? Illustrate. 84T. What is supposed 
to be the cradle of the tides ? Describe the movements of a wave proceeding from this 
quarter. Its progress after entering the Atlantic Ocean. What three points are reached 
i^multaneously ? 



TIDES. 



109 



States receives the wave from the east, while the western coast 
of Europe receives it from the west, the direction, in the latter 
case, being nearly the reverse of what it had previously to 
doubhng the Cape of Good Hope. 

349. Along the shores of South America, from Rio Janeiro to 
the Falkland Islands, a wave advances from east to west, bring- 
ing high tide later on going southward, as if the wave came from 
the north. On the western coast of South America the tide 
travels from north to south, between the Gulf of Panama and the 
Strait of Magellan. And on the same side of North America, 
it travels from the Gulf of Panama, northward to Queen Char- 
lotte's Sound 

350. The height to which tides rise varies greatly in different 
places. At St Helena the rise does not exceed three feet; at 
St. Male's, on the north coast of France, the spring tides rise 50 
feet ; at Chepstow, on the British Channel, 60 feet ; and in the 
Bay of Fundy, between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, it is 
known to rise 70 feet. On some occasions the rapidity of the 
waters is so great as to overtake animals feeding on the shores. 



TIDE TABLE FOR THE COAST OF THE UNITED STATES.* 



Portland 

Boston 

New Bedford Harbor. 

Newport 

New Haven 

New York 

Old Point Comfort.... 

Baltimore 

Smittiville 

Savannah 

Key West 



Interval between 

time ot moon's tian" 

sit and time of higli 

water. 



Mean. 
H. u. 



11 25 

11 22 
7 57 

7 45 
11 16 

8 13 
8 17 

IS 33 

7 19 

8 13 

9 22 



Dif. betw. 
greatest 
and least 



44 
44 
41 

24 

1 8 
46 
50 
43 
47 

51 

1 12 



Else and Fall. 



Mean. 
Feet. 



10-1 
3-8 
3-9 
5-8 
4-3 
2-5 
1-3 
4-5 
6-5 
14 



Spring. 
Feet. 



10 
131 
4-6 
4-6 
6-6 
5-4 

1-5 
5-5 
7-6 
2-3 



Neap. 
Feet. 



7-6 

7-4 
2-8 
3-1 
5-1 



0-9 



5-5 

0-7 



Mean Diir.'tion. 



Flood. 

H. M. 



6 14 
6 16 



Ebb. 

H. M. 



6 12 
6 18 

5 33 

6 3 
6 5 
6 25 
6 25 
6 33 

6 26 

7 22 
5 25 



20 
9 
42 
23 

28 



26 
14 

12 



Qtiestions. — 349. What is the direction of the wave south of Eio Janeiro ? Describe its 
movements on the western coast of South America. On the western coast of North 
America. 350. Mention the height to which tides rise at different places. 



* The author is indebted for the above table to the kindness of A. D. Bache, Superin- 
tendent of the United States Coast Survey. 



110 CUEEENTS OF THE OCEAN 



LESSON XVI. 

THE OCEAN — (continued). 

351. Currents constitute the third oceanic movement. They 
consist of vast oceanic streams which keep up a perpetual circu- 
lation of the waters, transferring them from one hemisphere to 
another, — from the Pacific to the Atlantic, and to the Pacjfic 
again, — and from the polar seas to the warm regions of the torrid 
zone. 

352. Currents are due to a variety of causes ; as the influence 
of tides and winds, — the evaporating power of the sun, — the 
expansion and contraction of water by heat and cold, — and the 
revolution of the earth upon its axis. 

353. The effect of the rise and fall of tides in producing an 
alternate flowing of currents in opposite directions, is perceived 
in channels between islands, or between islands and the main- 
land. Thus, in the channel which connects Long Island Sound 
with the Harbor of New York, known as the East River, strong 
currents^ alternately prevail in opposite directions, as the tide 
ebbs or flows. 

354. Evaporation by solar heat is another cause of oceanic 
currents. Large quantities of water raised from one tract of the 
ocean are transported to some other, where the vapor is condensed 
and falls in the form of rain ; this, in flowing back to restore 
equilibrium, causes sensible currents. A perpetual stream flows 
into the Mediterranean from the Black Sea through the Bospho- 
rus and the Hellespont, and another from the Atlantic through the 
Straits of Gibraltar. No counter, lateral, or submarine currents 
have been discovered sufficient to dispose of the quantity of wa- 
ter flowing inward ; hence the inference that the inward current 
goes to supply the waste caused by an enormous evaporation. 

355. The expansion and contraction of water by heat and cold 
are, perhaps, the principal causes to which currents are due. 



-351. Of what do currents consist ? 352. To what are they due ? 353. Where 
13 the eflfect of the rise and fall of tides in producing currents perceived? Example. 354. 
How does evaporation by solar heat operate to produce currents ? Mention what is said 
of the Mediterranean Sea. 355. What are perhaps the principal causes to which currents 
are due ? Explain hew they aflfect the currents. 



ARCTIC CtJRKENT. Ill 

Warm water is specifically lighter than cold, and when certain 
portions become heated, they rise by reason of their buoyancy 
above the general surface, and are replaced by surrounding colder 
and heavier fluid flowing in beside or beneath them. 

356. The revolution of the earth upon its axis is still another 
powerful cause in producing currents, particularly those of the 
equatorial regions, which have ^commonly a westerly direction. 
The winds of tropical climates, which blow continuously, or 
during long periods in one direction, also lend their influence in 
afiecting this class of oceanic movements. 

357. Currents may be classed into constant, periodical, varia- 
ble, counter, and drift currents. Constant currents are produced 
by the rotation of the earth, differences of temperature in the 
waters of the ocean, and other causes not yet fully understood. 
Periodical currents are principally due to the action of tides, 
though they are doubtless aff'ected somewhat by the land and sea 
breezes and monsoons. Variable currents are occasioned by tides, 
winds, and the melting of ice in the polar regions. Counter cur- 
rents are the streams that flow alongside or beneath, and in op- 
posite directions to, other currents. Drift currents are the effect 
of permanent and prevailing winds upon the surface of the sea, 
and a variety of other causes. 

358. Arctic Current. — The north polar or Arctic Current, 
after passing round the North Cape of Europe, crosses the upper 
part of the Atlantic, running to the southwest till' it reaches the 
east coast of Greenland. It then traverses the narrow sea be- 
tween that country and Iceland, turns round Caps Farewell, the 
southern extremity of Greenland, and proceeds northward into 
Davis' Strait. It follows the eastern side of the strait as far to 
the north as Holsteinborg, in latitude 67°, where it abruptly turns 
to the west, and strikes the opposite shore of Cape Walsingham. 
From thence its course is southward to Labrador and the north 
bank of Newfoundland, where it meets the Gulf Stream. 

359. The breadth of the Arctic Current is in some places from 

Questions. — 356. What other causes are instrumental in producing currents ? 357. How 
may currents be classed ? What are constant currents? Periodical currents ? Variable 
currents? Counter currents ? Drift currents? 358. What is the course of the north polar 
or Arctic Current previously to its reaching Cape Farewell ? After it turns round Capo 
Farewell ? 869. What is the breadth of this current ? Its velocity ? 



112 EQUATORIAL CUKBENT. 

250 to 300 miles. Its velocity varies, in different parts of its 
course, from eight or nine to fifteen or sixteen miles per day. 
The icy masses it bears along are supposed to be about two 
months in making the before-mentioned circuit from Cape Fare- 
well to the coast of Labrador. 

360. This current is distinguished for the great amount of 
drift-wood which it floats along^ and casts upon the shores of 
Spitzbergen, Iceland, and other lands lying in its way. The 
masses of floating wood thrown upon the island of Jan Mayen 
often equal, it is said, the whole of the island in extent. It is 
supposed that this timber comes from the forests of Siberia, 
and is carried into the Arctic Ocean by the streams of Northern 
Asia. . 

361. Recent observations in high northern latitudes show that 
the Arctic Current presents one of the most formidable difficulties 
in exploring the polar regions. Parry, who attempted to reach 
the north pole by means of boat-sledges and reindeer, traveled 
over the surface of the deep to nearly latitude 83°, which seemed 
to be the utmost limit of animal life. Here he found that when, 
according to his reckoning, he had traveled ten or eleven miles 
toward the north, he had actually gone four miles to the south, 
owing to the current. The success of the expedition was thus 
rendered hopeless. The two vessels of the Grinnell Expedition 
which were sent out, under the command of Lieut. De Haven, to 
search for Sir John Franklin, after having penetrated far into 
Wellington Channel, were inclosed firmly in the ice, and drifted 
backward through Baffin's Bay, a distance of not less than fifteen 
hundred miles, thus baffling one of the noblest and most humane 
enterprises ever undertaken. 

362. Equatorial Current. — The most extensive movement 
of the ocean is that which proceeds from east to west, on each 
side of the equator, and is therefore called the Equatorial Current. 
This great oceanic current originates in the immense expanse of 
the Antarctic Ocean. It first moves in a northeasterly direction 

Qtiestions.—S&O. For wbal is it distinguished ? 361 . What do recent observations in high 
northern latitudes show ? Describe the attempt of Parry to reach the north pole. The 
drift of the two vessels of the Grinnell Expedition. 362. Which is the most extensive 
movement of the ocean, and what is it called? Where does it originate? Describe ita 
course. 



MEXICAN GULF STREAM. 113 

until it reaches the western shores of South America; a small 
branch rounds Cape Horn, but the great stream flows along the 
American coast until it arrives off the shores of Peru ; it then 
turns toward the west, and in a belt 3,500 miles broad, moves 
westwardly through the Pacific. 

363. On reaching the Indian Archipelago and Australia, it is 
divided into numerous smaller streams, and hence the variable 
currents prevailing in the Indian Ocean, which render navigation 
so dangerous. A large volume of water forces its way through 
the islands, and joins the great equatorial current which moves 
on toward the eastern coast of Africa. The greater portion of 
the stream flows round north of the island of Madagascar, and 
sweeps through the channel of Mozambique, after which, being 
joined by other currents from the east, it doubles Cape Horn and 
enters the bed of the Atlantic. 

364. Proceeding northward along the western shores of Af- 
rica, it mingles with the Great Atlantic equatorial current which 
flows out of the Gulf of Guinea. The Equatorial Current, on 
reaching Cape St. Roque, the most eastern point of South Amer- 
ica, is separated into two branches. One proceeds southward 
along the coast of South America, and before reaching the mouth 
of the La Plata, it is turned toward the east, and under the name 
of the South Connecting Current, makes the circuit of the South 
Atlantic Ocean, entering the Indian Ocean 200 miles to the south 
of the Gape of Good Hope. 

365. The other and principal branch, known by the name of 
the Guinea Current, is a direct continuation of the equatorial. It 
runs from off Cape St. Roque, across the mouth of the Amazon, 
and after skirting the low coast of Guiana, and passing through 
the Caribbean Sea, it enters the Gulf of Mexico, between the 
island of Cuba and the peninsula of Yucatan. 

366. Mexican Gulf Stream. — This is the most powerful cur- 
rent known, and the most important in consequence of the extent 

Questions. — 363. What happens on its reaching the Indian Archipelago and Austra- 
lia V Describe its subsequent course until it reaches Cape Horn. CC4. Its course through 
the Atlantic. Where is it divided? What is the course of the southern branch? 365. 
What is the name of the other branch, and where does it run ? 366. What is said of the 
Mexican Gulf Stream ? Where does it originate ? Its velocity through the straits of Florida? 
Its subsequent course ? Its course after striking the banks of Newfoundland ? 



114: MEXICAN GULF STREAM. 

to which it affects the navigation of the Atlantic. It originates in 
the Gulf of Mexico, the waters of which are characterized by 
a remarkably high temperature.* It pours forth at the rate of 
five miles an hour through the straits of Florida, and flows in a 
northeasterly direction along the whole coast of the United 
States, expanding in volume and diminishing in rapidity. On 
striking the banks of Newfoundland, it sets to the east, and trav- 
erses the basin of the Atlantic to the Azores, where it turns south 
and enters the Equatorial Current on the coast of Africa, and 
is conducted again to the west, to re-enter into itself in the Gulf 
of Mexico. Thus the waters of the Atlantic Ocean between the 
parallels of 11° and 43° constitute a whirlpool of prodigious ex- 
tent, by which a smgle particle of water describes a circuit of 
over 11,000 miles in the space of two years and ten months. 

367. The Gulf Stream, as it issues from the straits of Florida, 
is a dark indigo-blue ; the line of junction between it and the 
green waters of the Atlantic, is plainly seen for hundreds of 
miles. This line is finally lost to the eye as the stream goes 
northj though it is preserved to the thermometer for several 
thousand miles. From observations made with the deep-sea 
thermometer, it has been ascertained that " the stream, as far as the 
banks of Newfoundland, flows through a bed of cold water, which 
cold water performs to the warm the office of hanks to a river."t 

Questions. — 367. What is the color of the Gulf Stream ? What fact has been ascer- 
tained respecting it ? 

* DiflFerent opinions have been formed, respecting the cause of the Gulf Stream. It is 
supposed by some, that the waters of the Mexican Gulf have a higher level than those 
of the Atlantic in consequence of the trade winds and the influx of the Equatorial Current; 
and that the current is merely the running offoi the water, in order to restore an equilib- 
rium. Accordingly, the stream has been likened to " an immense river descending from a 
higher level into a plain." But Lieut. Maury has very satisfactorily disproved this theory, 
and shown that, " instead of descending, its bed (the bed of the stream) represents the 
surface of an inclined plane from the north, up which the lower depths of the stream must 
ascend.?' In the absence of any better theory respecting the cause of this remarkable 
current, it is safe to assume that it is influenced much by the excessive temperature im- 
parted to the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The course of the Gulf Stream has been as- 
signed to the difference in density between the waters of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf 
of Mexico,-and those of the Baltic and the North seas. The waters of the former contain 
a larger proportion of salt, and are consequently heavier than common sea water ; while 
th"«e of the latter, being only slightly impregnated with saline matter, are much lighter 
than common sea water. This difference in density destroys the equilibrium and produces 
a current; "for wherever equilibrium be destroyed, it is restored by motion, and motion 
among fluid particles gives rise to currents, which, in turn, constitute circulation." 

f Lieut M. F. Maury. 



MEXICAN GULF STREAM. 115 

368. Coming from the heated cauldron of the Gulf of Mexico, 
the waters of the Gulf Stream have a high temperature, which is 
gradually lost as they reach higher latitudes, " The maximum 
temperature of the Gulf Stream is 86°, or about 9° above the 
ocean temperature due the latitude. Increasing its latitude 10°, 
it loses 2° of temperature. And, after having run 3,000 miles 
toward the north, it still preserves, even in winter, the heat of 
summer. With this temperature it crosses the 40th degree of 
north latitude, and there, overflowing its liquid hanks, it spreads 
itself out for thousands of square leagues over the cold waters 
around, and covers the ocean with a mantle of warmth that 
serves so much to mitigate in Europe the rigors of winter. 
Moving now more slowly, but dispensing its genial influences 
more freely, it finally meets the British Islands, By these it is 
divided, one part going into the polar basin of Spitzbergen, the 
other entering the Bay of Biscay, but each with a warmth con- 
siderably above ocean temperature. Such an immense volume 
of heated water can not fail to carry with it beyond the seas a 
mild and moist atmosphere. And this it is which so much softens 
climate there."* 

Qxiest!ion8.—Z&%. What is said of its temperature ? What is its maximum or greatest 
temperature, and how many degrees is it above that due the latitude ? Describe how the 
Gulf Stream serves to moderate the climate of Europe. 



* Lieut. M. F. Maury 




PART III. 

THE ATMOSPHERE 
LESSON I. 

COMPOSITION OF AIR. 

TMOSPHERE is the name of 
that thin, transparent, and highly 
elastic fluid which surrounds the 
earth on every side, and ac- 
companies it in its diurnal rev- 
olution upon its axis and its 
annual motion round the sun. 
It is lighter than either land or 
water, and rises above them, but 
is kept by the force of gravity 
close to the surface of the earth, 
where its use is indispensable to all living creatures. It is the 
medium through which sound, light, and odor are transmitted ; it 
is the vehicle in which moisture is raised and diffused ; and the 
agent by which that diversity of color so pleasing to the eye is 
produced in natural objects. 

370. Atmosphere is unlike the great divisions of land and 
water in not being perceptible to the touch unless in agitation. 
Its existence as a material substance is evident the moment it is 
set in motion. It not only carries away in its progress the lighter 
substances with which it comes in contact, but, when greatly agi- 
tated, uproots trees, crumbles rocks, and overturns buildings. Its 
motion is applied as a mechanical force, and as such is of vast 
use to man in wafting his vessels over the ocean. 

371. The atmosphere is composed principally of two different 

Questions. — 869. Of what is atmosphere the name ? What is said of its lightness ? 
What else is remarked of it? 370. How is atmosphere unlike the great divisions of land 
and water? Its effects when in motion? Its motion how applied? 371. Of what is the 
atmosphere principally composed, and in what proportions? What other substances does 
it contain ? State the composition of 1000 parts of the atmosphere. 



COMPOSITION OF AIR. 117 

gases, termed oxygen and nitrogen, the relative proportions 
being 21 parts of the former to 79 of the latter. It contains a 
small but variable proportion of aqueous vapor, and a still smaller 
proportion of carbonic acid gas. The proportions of oxygen and 
nitrogen are definite, but the amount of aqueous vapor fluctuates. 
Under ordinary circumstances, the composition of 1000 parts of 
the atmosphere may be stated as follows : 

Oxygen 210-0 

Nitrogen 775-0 

Aqueous vapor 14-2 

Carbonic acid 0-8 

1094-0 

372. The same proportions of oxygen and nitrogen are found 
in the atmosphere of all countries, and at all elevations, over 
land and over sea, on the summit of the highest mountains and at 
their base, at the equator and in high northern and southern lati- 
tudes. The quantity of carbonic acid gas is, however, greater 
near the level of the sea in summer than in wmter ; greater 
during the night than the day ; and rather more abimdant on the 
summit of high mountains than on plains. 

373. Oxygen and nitrogen are extremely different in their 
properties. Oxygen gas is a supporter of combustion, and is 
required for the support of animal life, while nitrogen, in its un- 
mixed state, is destructive to both. Without oxygen, fires would 
cease to burn, and all animals would immediately expire. By 
the process of breathing it is taken into the lungs and goes to 
purify the blood. When the bloo'd is brought into the lungs it is 
of a dark purple color, but it then throws off the hydrogen and 
carbon, and receives oxygen, which gives it a bright red color. 
A portion of the nitrogen that is received by the lungs appears 
to be absorbed, while the other and larger part is rejected and 
thrown back again into the atmosphere in which it immediately 
rises, being lighter than air. 



Questions. — 372. What is said of the invariable proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in 
common air? In what localities, and at what times, is the quantity of carbonic acid great- 
er? 373. What is said of oxygen gas? Of nitrogen gas? What would happen without 
oxygen ? What is the color of the blood when brought into the lungs ? What change . 
then takes place ? What becomes of the nitrogen received into the lungs ? 



118 



PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 



LESSON II. 



PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 

374. The general properties of the atmosphere are transparency, 
fluidity, weight, and elasticity Transparency is that state or prop- 
erty it possesses by which 
?^^i?r it suffers rays of light to 
pass through it, so that 
objects can be distinctly 
seen through it. The va- 
rious degrees of clearness ■ 
in the atmosphere are 
owing to particles of va- 
por and other substances 
which float in it. Distant 
objects sometimes appear 
twice as near as at others, a phe- 
nomenon occasioned by the differ- 
ence in the purity of the atmosphere, 
or its freedom from aqueous and other 
particles. 

375. 'Qy ihe fluidity oi ihe atmo- 
sphere is meant that quality it possesses which renders it im- 
pressible to the slightest force, and by which the particles easily 
move or change their relative positions. Fluidity is a property 
common to liquid and aeriform substances. The atmosphere, 
like other fluids, presses in all directions, upward as well as 
downward, and is capable of supporting light bodies. 

376. The air is ponderable, or has weight. The pressure or 
weight exerted upon every square inch of the earth's surface is 
equal to about 15 pounds. In consequence of its fluidity it 




Questions.— ^li. What are the general properties of the atmosphere ? "What is transpa- 
rency ? To what are the various degrees of clearness owing? Why do distant objects ap- 
pear sometimes twice as near as at others? 375. What is meant by the fluidity of the atmo- 
sphere? How does the atmosphere press? 376. What is the pressure or weight on every 
square inch of the earth's surface ? What pressure does the human body of the ordinary 
size sustain ? Why do we not feel the pressure ? 



PKOPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 119 

presses equally in every direction, and the human body, of the 
ordinary size (supposed to measure 15 square feet), sustains the 
enormous pressure of 31,536 pounds or 14 tons. We do not 
feel the pressure, owing to its acting uniformly on all sides, and 
because the air within our bodies perfectly counterpoises the ex- 
ternal pressure. 

377. The weight of a column of the entire atmosphere is 
equal to that of a column of water of the same base about 34 feet 
high, or a similar column of mercury 30 inches high. The 
pressure diminishes as we ascend, according to a*scale, which is 
nearly certain. From numerous observations it has been ascer- 
tained that 



at the 
height of 



3^ 2 

7 4 

10^ 8 

, 14 miles above the level 16 

17^ of the sea, the air is 32 

21 64 

24i 128 

■(_ 28 256 



times lighter than at 
the earth's surface. 



378. The pressure of the atmosphere is indicated by the 
barometer (the measure of weight), an instrument consisting of 
a column of mercury poised or pressed up into a vacuum by the 
weight of the atmosphere. The mercury rises or falls according 
to the pressure of the atmosphere, its range, at the level of the 
sea, being from about 28 to 31 inches. 

379. The barometer is used for determining the height of 
mountains. At the level of the sea the pressure is greatest in 
consequence of the weight of all the superincumbent atmosphere, 
and hence at that point the highest column of mercury will be 
sustained ; but as we ascend, this superincumbent pressure is di- 
minished, and consequently the mercury falls. Thus, Humboldt, 
at the foot of Mount Chimborazo, found the barometer to stand 
exactly at 30 inches ; but on ascending the mountain to the ele- 
vation of 19,000 feet, it was very little higher than 14 inches. 

Questions.— SJ J. To -what is the weight of a column of atmosphere equal? 378. By 
what instrument is the pressure of the atmosphere indicated ? What is the range of the 
mercurial column at the level of the sea ? 379. For what is the barometer used ? Where 
will the highest column of mercury be sustained, and why? Why does it fall as we 
ascend ? What did Humboldt discover ? Lieut. Hemdon ? What have experiments 
proved ? 



120 PEOPEETIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 

In the pass of Antarangra (one of the highest passes of the 
Andes), Lieut. Herndon found the barometer to stand at 16-73 
inches, indicating an elevation of 16,044 feet. Experiments 
have proved that the mercury will fall about yL of an inch for 
every 100 feet of perpendicular height, or one inch for every 
1,000 feet. 

380. The density or pressure of the atmosphere is, by another 
method, made subservient to the measurement of heights ; name- 
ly, by observing the boiling point of water, which decreases in a 
ratio nearly equivalent to the decrease of atmospheric pressure. 
At the level of the sea, water boils, or passes into the state of 
steam, at 212° Fahrenheit, but at the Hospice of the Great St. 
Bernard, it boils at the lower temperature of 203°, and on the 
top of Mount Blanc, at 186°. In the pass of Antarangra, Lieut. 
Herndon found water to boil at 182° 5. From these and other 
observations, it may be inferred that a difference of one degree in 
the boiling point of water, as indicated by the common thermom- 
eter, answers very nearly to 550 feet of elevation. 

381. The elasticity of the atmosphere is the property it pos- 
sesses of occupying less space under the influence of certain 
forces, and returning to its original volume when the influence 
is withdrawn. Hence its density is not uniform, but, as before 
explained, diminishes from below upward. The height of the 
atmosphere is not known, but it is supposed to extend to about 
fifty miles. By far the greater portion of it is within fifteen or 
twenty miles of the earth's surface ; and at a much less distance 
it becomes so rarefied as to be incapable of supporting life. 

382. Travelers on high mountains have experienced sensible, 
and sometimes painful, proofs of the rarefied state of the air. In 
very elevated regions the thinness of the air diminishes the in- 
tensity of sound, renders breathing difficult, and produces a loss of 
physical strength. The blood burst from the ears and lips of Hum- 

Questions. — 3S0. By what other method may the density of the atmosphere be made 
subservient to the measurement of heights ? At what degree of Fahrenheit does water boil 
at the level of the sea ? At the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard ? On the top <.f Mount 
Blanc V In ihe pass of Antarangra? What elevation is found to answer the diflFerence 
of one degree in the boiling point ? 3S1. What is the elasticity of the atmosphere ? How- 
does its density diminish? What is the supposed height of the atmosphere? 382. What 
have travelers on high mountains experienced ? What effects are produced by the thin- 
ness of the air ? 



WINDS. 121 

boldt in attempting to reach a high elevation in the Andes. He 
experienced the same difficulty in kindling and maintaining a fire 
at great heights, which Marco Polo felt on the mountains of 
Central Asia. In the high regions of the Andes a malady pre- 
vails, called veta, which is thus spoken of by Lieut. Herndon : 
" Veta is the sickness caused by the rarity of the atmosphere 
at these great elevations. The Indians call it veta, or vein, be- 
cause they believe it is caused by veins of metal diffusing around 
a poisonous mfection. The affection displays itself in a violent 
headache, with the veins of the head swollen and turgid, a diffi- 
culty of respiration and cold extremities." 



LESSON III 

WINDS. 



383. The atmosphere remains at rest so long as its density 
is unchanged ; but, as soon as the equilibrium is broken by 
any cause whatever, a motion occurs, which is called wind. If, 
in one part of the atmosphere, the air becomes dense, it passes 
away to those parts where the density is less, in the same man- 
ner as air, compressed in a pair of bellows, escapes by the orifice. 
We may compare this displacement of air to that of water in 
rivers ; it is a flowing of the aerial ocean from one region toward 
another. 

384. The currents of the atmosphere perform many invaluable 
services to man. They renew the air of cities ; and they miti- 
gate the climates of the north by bringing to them the heat of the 
south. They transport the clouds from the sea to the interior 
of continents, thus aiding to fertilize regions which would other- 
wise become arid and uninhabitable. They waft the sails of the 
navigator around the globe, bring distant nations into familiarity, 
and are thus greatly instrumental in the diffusion of civilization 
and Christianity throughout the world. 

Questions. — 3S3. How long does the atmosphere remain at rest? What occars when 
this equilibrium is broken ? If in one part of the atmosphere the air becomes dense, what 
follows? To what may this displacement of the air he compared? 3S4. Describe the 
uses of the atmospheric currents. 

6 



122 vv^INDS. 

385. To indicate the direction of the wind the horizon is 
divided into eight equal parts, and the wind is designated by 
giving it the name of the points of the horizon whence it blows. 
The eight kinds of winds are north, north-east, east, south-east, 
south, south-west, west, and north-west. It is customary to write 
merely the initial of these words, that is : N., N. E., E., S. E., 
S., S. W., W., N. W. 

386. The general direction of the wind near the surface of the 
earth is indicated by vanes. They are commonly placed on ele- 
vated buildings, such as steeples, towers, etc., so that small va- 
riations, resulting from accidents of the ground, may not have 
any action on them. Clouds indicate the direction of the upper 
aerial currents ; and show that it differs very often from the 
direction of the wind on the surface of the earth. 

387. That the direction of the wind in the upper regions is 
often the reverse of what it is in the lower, has been conclu- 
sively proved. During an eruption of the volcano of St. Vincent 
in 1812, the ashes were conveyed in great quantities to the 
island of Barbadoes, situated to the east. These islands lie in 
the range of the trade-winds, which blow from the east toward 
the west ; but the ashes, having been launched into the air as 
high as the region of the upper current, were transported by it 
in the direction from west to east. At the summit of the Peak 
of Teneriife almost all travelers have found west winds, while 
east winds prevail at the level of the sea. On the 25th of Feb- 
ruary, 1835, the ashes emitted from the volcano of Coseguina, in 
the state of Guatemala, obscured the light of the sun for five days ; 
they rose into a high region of the atmosphere, and fell a short 
time afterward in the streets of Kingston, in Jamaica, which is 
situated to the N. E. of Guatemala, the winds near the surface 
all the while blowing toward the S. W. 



Questions. — 885. Into how many parts is the horizon divided to indicate the direction 
of the wind ? How is the wind designated ? What are the eight kinds of winds? Their 
initials? 3S6. How is the general direction of the winds near the surface of the earth 
Indicated? Where are they commonly placed, and why? What do clouds indicate? 
887. What is said of the reverse direction of upper and under currents ? Of the eruption 
of the volcano of St. Vincent? What have travelers found at the summit of the Peak 
of Tenerlffe ? What further illustration of this fact was afforded by the transportation 
of ashes emitted from the volcano of Coseguina ? 



The UgJvt waved, tinea wMdh- cro.vs t>%e,Ma.p front JSchst to 
'West, are Isotherms [or lines of equal mean, temp eraiturei 
and tAe figia-es attuclied to eadhjnarlc the , 
ircmiiuzl heat.whic/zit rep?-e.fents.ana wfurh istjiesarn^ in 
all planes. 13irongl\ whirh it passe.9 . 




F-T^tsred, acr.Lrraznj -co^Act erf 



tm^ess.zr^ rjiexearl. 



k Co ir. t3u- uerrcs Office ,?'rheD:st:-'^ lczct rr'i,.. 



VARIABLE WINDS. 123 

388. Daily experience teaches us the unequal force of the 
wind, exhibiting every conceivable variety, from the almost in- 
sensible breeze, to the hurricane which prostrates the monarch 
of the forest. The following facts respecting the velocity and 
force of winds have been ascertained : 

Velocity of the Perpendicular force on 

wind in miles one square foot in pounds Characteristics. 

per hour. avoirdupois. 

1 -005 Hardly perceptible. 

2 '020 Just perceptible. 

5 '123 Gentle, pleasant 'wind. 

10 -492 Brisk gale. 

20 1-968 Very brisk. 

30 4-429 High wind. 

40 7-873 Very high wind. 

60 12-300 A storm. 

60 17-715 A violent storm. 

80 31-490 Ahurricane. 

100 49-200 A violent hurricane. 

389. Winds may be divided into three classes, — Variable, Per- 
manent, and Periodical. 

390. Variable Winds. — Variable winds, as their name indi- 
cates, are very irregular as to time, direction, and force, and 
seldom continue to blow for many days. They prevail in the 
Temperate and Frigid zones, those of the Torrid zone being, :uf 
the most part, either permanent or periodical. 

391. We are not fully acquainted with the causes which pro- 
duce these partial and ever-fluctuating aerial currents, but there 
is no doubt that they are mainly due to the unequal states of the 
temperature of land and sea. Although these winds alternately 
come from every point of the compass, changin'g frequently from 
one point to the opposite in a very short space of time, it has 
been observed that diff'erent seasons are characterized by winds 
from different directions. Franklin long ago observed in North 
America, that in summer the winds come from the south and in 
winter from the north. 

Questions. — 388. What is said of the unequal force of the wind ? Describe the force, 
and mention the characteristic, of wind having a A'elocity of 1 mile per hour. 2 miles per 
hour. 5 miles per hour. 10 miles per hour. 20 miles per hour. 30 miles per hour. 40 
miles per hour. 50 miles per hour. 60 miles per hour. SO miles per hour. 100 miles per 
hour. 389. Into what three classes may winds be divided ? 390. What are variable 
winds? Where do they prevail ? 391. To what are they no doubt mainly due? What 
has been observed respecting them ? What did Franklin observe? 



124 VARIABLE WINDS. 

392. From numerous observations made in different parts of 
Europe, the following laws have been established : In winter, 
the direction of the wind is principally from the south, its force 
being greatest in January. In spring, east winds are common at 
certain places in March, and at other places in April. In sum- 
mer, especially in July, the winds blow chiefly from the west, and 
in autumn the south winds more frequently blow, particularly in 
October. 

393. Designating the total number of winds that blow in a 
given time by 1000, the following Table shows their relative fre- 
quency in the countries named : 

Countries. N. N. E. E. S. E, S. S. "W. W. W. "W. 

North America.. 96.. ..116.. .. 49.. ..108.. ..123.. ..197.. ..101.. ..210 

England 82.. ..111.... 99.... 81. ...111.. ..225.. ..171.. ..120 

France 126.. ..140.. .. 84.... 76.. ..117.. ..192.. ..155.. ..110 

Germany 84.... 98... .119.... 87.... 97.. ..185.. ..198.. ..131 

Denmark 65.... 98.. ..100.. ..129.... 92.. ..198... .161.. ..156 

Sweden 102.. ..104.. .. 80.... 110.. ..128.. ..210... .159.... 106 

Prussia 99.. ..191.... 81.. ..130. .. . 98.. ..143.. ..166.. ..192 

394. There is a certain class of variable winds known to pos- 
sess peculiar properties, such as the hot winds felt on the north- 
ern coast of Africa, in Persia, India, and China, the cold winds 
of Siberia, the pestilential simoon or samiel of Africa, Arabia, 
and Mesopotamia, etc. Winds partake of the property of the 
regions from which they come ; thus, in Europe the west winds 
which blow from the Atlantic are more moist than the east, 
which sweep over the continent. On the Atlantic coast of the 
United States, the winds which come from the northeast are 
remarkable for their chilliness, and for the disagreeable storms 
which accompany them. Variable winds may be subdivided into 
cold and hot winds. 

395. The cold winds of the north temperate zone are those 
which blow from the north and northeast. In Europe the north- 
east winds are cold, deriving their character from the very low 
temperature which prevails in northern Europe and Asia. In 



.—892. What is the general direction of the winds of Europe in winter? In 
spring ? In summer ? In autumn ? 394. What is said of the properties of certain winds? 
Of the west winds in Europe ? Of the northeast winds on the Atlantic coast of the United 
States ? How may variable winds be subdivided ? 395. What is said of the cold winds 
of the north temperate zone ? Of the northeast winds in Europe ? Of the north winds 
in the south of Europe ? 



THE SIMOON. ' 125 

the south of Europe the north winds are of great violence and 
severity, owing to the contrast between the snow-covered Alps 
and the elevated temperature of the Mediterranean. 

396. The bora, a northeast wind, so called in Istria and Dalmatia, is 
sometimes so furious as to overturn horses at plow. The mistral and the 
vent de bise are winds which prevail in the southeast of France. The mis- 
tral blows from the northwest, descending from the mountains of Central 
France, and sweeping over the ancient provinces of Provence and Langue- 
doc, where it is supposed to contribute greatly to the salubrity of the air, by 
dispelling the exhalations from the marshes and stagnant waters common in 
that region of extensive levels. It is very fearful in the Gulf of Lyons ; 
hence the name of that gulf, not derived, as commonly imagined, from the 
city of Lyons, but from the lion-like violence of its tempests. The vent de 
bise (black wind) is a cold, piercing current from the Alps and the mount- 
ains of Auvergne, which chiefly follows the course of the Rhone, in the val- 
ley through which it runs, rendering the climate in winter very severe. In 
Spain, a north wind, called the gallego, is of a very formidable character. 

397. Hot winds are very frequent in countries contiguous to 
the tropical regions. Large deserts and plains, covered with little 
vegetation, engender very warm winds ; these winds, which are 
of a noxious character, prevail in the vast deserts of Asia and 
Africa, where they show themselves in all their force. Nubia, 
Arabia, Persia, and other parts of Asia, are visited by a burning 
wind peculiar to the desert. In Arabia it is called samoun, from 
the Arabic samma, which signifies hot and poisonous. It is also 
named samiel, from samm, poison. In Egypt it is called cham- 
sin (fifty) because it blows for fifty days, from the end of April 
until June, at the commencement of the inundation of the Nile. 
In the western part of the Sahara it is named harmattan. 

398. The Simoon is announced by the troubled appearance of 
the horizon ; afterward the sky becomes obscured, and the sun 
loses its brilliancy, — paler than the moon, its light no longer pro- 
jects a shadow ; the green of the trees appears of a dirty blue, 
the birds are restless, and the affrighted animals wander in all 
directions. The rapid evaporation occurring at the surface of 
the human body dries the skin, inflames the throat, accelerates 

Questions. — 396. What is said of the liora ? The mistral ? The vent de liise ? 397. 
Where are hot winds very frequent ? By what name is the burning wind called in Ara- 
bia? By what other name is it known? What is it called in Egypt, and why? In the 
western part of Sahara ? 398. How is the simoon announced ? How does it affect the 
human body ? 



126 



THE siarooN, 



respiration, and causes a violent thirst. The water contained in 
the skins evaporates, and the caravan is a prey to all the horrors 
of thirst. 

399. This hot wind is deleterious in its mildest forms, occasionally de- 
structive, and many a pilgrim to the shrine of the prophet at Mecca, and 
merchant to the marts of Bagdad, have perished by its noxious, suffocating 
influence. Bruce suffered from it when ascending the Nile, he and his com- 
pany becoming so enervated as to be incapable of pitching their tents, op- 
pressed as well by an intolerable headache. " The poisonous simoon," he 
remarks, when at Chendi, " blew as if it came from an oven ; our eyes were 
dim, our lips cracked, our knees tottering, our throats perfectly dry ; and 
no relief was found from drinking an immoderate quantity of water. 

400. " In June, 1813," says Buckhardt, " in going from Siout to Esne, I 
was surprised by the simoon in the plain which separates Furschiout from 
Berdys. When the wind arose I was alone, mounted on my dromedary, and 
at a distance from every tree and habitation. I endeavored to protect my 
face by wrapping it in a handkerchief. Meanwhile, the dromedary, into 
whose eyes the wind drove the sand, became restless, commenced galloping, 




Storm .a i-n-i Dc-.sci't. 

and caused me to lose the stirrups. I remained lying on the earth without 
moving from the spot, for I could not see to a distance of ten metres, and I 
wrapped myself up in my clothes until the wind had abated. I then went 
in search after my dromedary, which I found at a very great distance, lying 
down near a bush that protected his head against the sand raised by the 
wind." 

QuefiUons.—S99. What further is remarked respecting this hot wind ? How did Bruce 
suffer from it ? What does he say of it ? 400. Mention some of the particulars related by 
Buckhardt. 



THE SIMOON. 127 

401 . Volney gives the following complete account of the simoon and its 
eflfects : " Travelers," he states, " have mentioned these winds under the 
name of poisonous winds ; or, more correctly, hot winds of the desert. Such, 
in fact, is their quality ; and their heat is sometimes so excessive that it is 
difficult to form an idea of their violence without having experienced it ; 
but it may be compared to the heat of a large oven at the moment of draw- 
ing out the bread. When these vrinds begin to blow, the atmosphere as- 
sumes an alai..iing aspect. The sky, at other times so clear in this climate, 
becomes dark and heavy ; the sun loses its splendor, and appears of a violet 
color. The air is not cloudy, but gray and thick ; and is in fact with an 
extremely subtile dust, that penetrates everywhere. 

402. " This wind, always light and rapid, is not at first extremely hot, 
but it increases in heat in proportion as it continues. All animated bodies 
soon discover it by the change it produces in them. The lungs, which a too 
rarefied air no longer expands, are contracted and become painful. Respi- 
ration is short and difficult, the skin parched and dry, and the body con- 
sumed by an internal heat. In vain is recourse had to large drafts of wa- 
ter ; nothing can restore perspiration. In vain is coolness sought for ; all 
bodies in which it is usual to find it deceive the hand that touches them. 
Marble, iron, water, notwithstanding the sun no longer appears, are hot. 
The streets are deserted, and the dead silence of night reigns everywhere. 
The inhabitants of townc and villages shut themselves up in their houses — 
and those of the deserts in their tents, or in pits they dig in the earth — 
where they wait the termination of this destructive heat. 

403. " It usually lasts three days, but if it exceeds that time it becomes 
insupportable. Woe to the traveler whom this wind surprises remote from 
shelter ! he must suffer all its dreadful consequences, which sometimes are 
mortal. The danger is most imminent when it blows in squalls, for then the 
rapidity of the wind increases the heat to such a degree as to cause sudden 
death. This death is a real suffocation; the lungs, being empty, are con- 
vulsed ; the circulation disordered, and the whole mass of blood, driven by 
the heat toward the head and breast ; whence that hemorrhage at the nose 
and mouth which happens after death. 

404. "This wind is especially fatal to persons of a plethoric habit, and 
those in whom fatigue has destroyed the tone of the muscles and vessels. 
The corpse remains a long time warm, swells, turns blue, and is easily sep- 
arated ; all of which are signs of that putrid fermentation which takes 
place when the humors become stagnant. These accidents are to be avoided 
by stopping the nose and mouth with handkerchiefs ; an efficacious method 
is also that practiced by the camels, who bury their noses in the sand, and 
keep them there till the squall is over. 

Questions. — 401. What does Tolney say respecting these winds? To what does he com- 
pare iheir heat ? What is the aspect of the atmosphere during the continuance of the 
simoon ? 402. What changes does it produce on all animate bodies ? 403. How long does 
it usually last? "When is the danger most imminent? 404. To whom is the wind espe- 
cially fatal ? 



128 HARMATTAN, SIKOCOO. 

405. "Another quality of this wind is its extreme aridity, which is such, 
that water sprinkled upon the floor evaporates in a few minutes. By this 
extreme dryness it withers and strips all the plants, and by exhaling too 
suddenly the emanations from animal bodies, crisps the skin, closes the 
pores, and causes that feverish heat which is the invariable effect of sup- 
pressed perspiration." 

406. The Harmattan blows from the northeast, over Sene- 
gambia and Guinea, to that part of the coast of Africa lying be- 
tween Cape Verde, in 15° north latitude, to Cape Lopez in 1° 
south latitude, a coast line of upward of two thousand miles. It 
occurs during December, January, and February, generally three 
or four times during that season. It comes on at any hour of 
the day, at any time of the tide, or at any period of the moon, 
continuing sometimes only a day or two, at other times five or 
six days, and it has been known to last upward of a fortnight. 

407. Extreme dryness is the property of this wind ; — all veg- 
etation droops and withers, and should the harmattan blow for 
several days, the leaves of the lemon, orange, and lime-trees 
become so parched that they may be readily rubbed into dust. 
Even* household furniture cracks, and in many instances flies to 
pieces. Though this wind is so pernicious in its effects upon 
vegetable life, yet it is conducive to the health of the human 
species, by removing dampness from the atmosphere, and coun- 
teracting its effects after a long rainy season. 

408. The Sirocco is a hot southeast wind, prevailing in the 
Mediterranean, in Italy and Sicily, but felt most violently in the 
country around Naples, and at Palermo. It sometimes com- 
mences about the time of the summer solstice, but blows occa- 
sionally with grieat force in the month of July. Though usually 
attributed to the Sahara, it is supposed by some to arise on the 
arid rocks of Sicily ; and hence is far more violent on the north 
than on the south coast of the island, about Palermo, and also in 
the neighborhood of Naples. 

409. It is thus described by a traveler during his stay at Palermo : 

" On Sunday, July 8th, we had the long-expected sirocco wind, which, 
although our expectations had been raised pretty high, yet I own greatly 

Questions. — 105. What other quality does this wind possess? Give particulars. 406. 
Describe the Harmattan. When does it occur? What is said of its irregularity, etc.? 
407. What is the property of this wind ? What are its efiFects on bodies ? On the human 
Bpecies ? 408. What is the Sirocco ? When does it blow ? Its supposed origin ? 



SALANO. 129 

exceeded them. Friday and Saturday were uncommonly cool, the mercury 
never being higher than 725° : and although the Sirocco is said to have set 
in early on Sunday morning, the air in our apartments, which are very 
large, with high ceilings, was not in the least affected by it at eight o'clock, 
when I rose. I opened the door without having any suspicion of such a 
change ; and indeed I never was more astonished in my life. The first blast 
of it on my face felt like the burning steam from the mouth of an oven. I 
drew back my head and shut the door, calling out to Fullarton that the 
whole atmosphere was in a flame. However, we ventured to open another 
door tliat leads to a cool platform, where we usually walk ; this was not ex- 
posed to the wind ; and here I found the heat much more supportable than 
I could have expected from the first specimen I had of it at the other door. 
It felt somewhat like the subterraneous sweating-stoves at Naples, but still 
much hotter. In a few minutes we found every fiber greatly relaxed, and 
the pores opened to such a degree, that we expected soon to be thrown into 
a profuse sweat. 

410. " I went to examine the thermometer, and found the air in the room 
as yet so little affected that it stood only at 73°. The preceding night it 
was at 721°. I took it out to the open air, when it immediately rose to 110°, 
and soon after to 112°; and I am confident that in our old lodgings, or any- 
where within the city, it must have risen several degrees higher. The air 
was thick and heavy, but the barometer was little afiected : it had fallen 
only about a line. The sun did not once appear the whole day, otherwise I 
am persuaded the heat must have been insupportable ; on that side of our 
platform which is exposed to the wind, it was with difficulty we could bear 
it for a few minutes. Here I exposed a little pomatum, which was melted 
down as if I had laid it before the fire. I attempted to take a walk in the 
street, to see if any creature was stirring, but I found it too much for me, 
and was glad to get up stairs again. This extraordinary heat conMnued till 
three o'clock in the afternoon, when the wind changed at once, almost to 
the opposite point of the compass. All nature languishes under the influ- 
ence of this wind ; vegetation droops and withers ; the Italians suffering 
from it not less than strangers. When any feeble literary production ap- 
pears, the strongest phrase of disapprobation they can bestow is, " It was 
written in the time of the sirocco." 

411. The deserts of Asia and Africa are the regions in which 
the hot or burning winds prevail ; but in Spain, the Solano, a 
wind which is supposed to arise on the plains of Andalusia, 
throws the majority of individuals into a condition of peculiar 
languor. In India, which is covered with a rich vegetation, and 
in Chile, in Louisiana, and in the great level plains [Llanos) 
of the Orinoco, there are certain local winds of a very elevated 
temperature. 

QuesU(ms.—4\\. What is said of the deserts of Asia and Africa ? Of the Salano? Where 
do ©ther very warm winds prevail ? 

6* 



130 



TKADE-WINDS 



LESSON IV. 



PERMANENT WINDS. 



412. The Trade-winds are those permanent breezes which 
prevail within the tropics, and which maintain nearly the same 
direction and rate throughout the year. Their direction is from 
the northeast in the northern hemisphere, and from the southeast 
south of the line ; but it is more decidedly from the east as the 
equator is approached. They extend generally from about 28° 
to 30° on each side of the equator, but their limits vary consid- 
erably as the sun is north or south of the equator ; their external 
and internal boundaries are also very different in the Atlantic 
and Indian oceans. It is only over the wide ocean that the 
trade-winds can blow uninterruptedly. Between them is a zone 




A Calm at Sea. 

styled the Region of Calms, in which thick, foggy air prevails, 
with frequent sudden and copious rains, attended by thunder and 
lightning. 

413. The trade-winds may be thus explained. The regions 
bordering on the equator are the hottest on the earth. In con- 
sequence of rarefaction, the air there ascends and flows over the 
colder masses on either side toward the poles, from which a 

Questions. — 412. What are the trade-winds? What is their direction? Their limits? 
What region lies between them ? 413. How may the trade-winds be explained ? 



TKADE-WINDS. 131 

polder atmosphere moves to supply its place. Thus two currents 
are created in each hemisphere, an upper and a lower, but flow- 
ing in opposite directions. If the earth did not rotate on its 
axis, the lower current in the northern hemisphere, or the trade- 
wind, would be from north to south, and in the southern hemi- 
sphere from south to north. The earth, however, rotates from 
west to east, and the atmosphere surrounding it partakes of this 
rotary motion, — hence these winds become northeast and south- 
east. 

414. The movements of the trade-winds, and the laws by which they arc 
governed, are very clearly explained in the following article, by Lieut. 
Maury : 

" From the parallel of about 30° north and south, nearly to the equator, 
we have two zones of perpetual winds, viz. : the zone of northeast trades on 
this side, and of southeast on that. They blow perpetually, and are as 
steady and as constant as the currents of the Mississippi River — always 
moving in the same direction. As these two currents of air are constantly 
flowing from the poles toward the equator, we are safe in assuming that the 
air which they keep in motion must return by some channel to the place 
near the poles, whence it came in order to supply the trades. If this were 
not so, these winds would soon exhaust the polar regions of atmosphere, and 
pile it up about the equator, and then cease to blow for the want of air to 
make more wind of. 

415. " This return current, therefore, must be in the upper regions of 
the atmosphere, at least until it passes over those parallels between which 
the trade-winds are always blowing on the surface. The return current 
must also move in the direction opposite to the direction of that wind which 
it is intended to supply. These direct and counter-currents are also made 
to move in a sort of spiral curve, turning to the west as they go from the 
poles to the equator, and in the opposite direction as they move from the 
equator toward the poles. 

416. " This turning is caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis. 
The earth, we know, moves from west to east. Now if we imagine a par- 
ticle of atmosphere at the north pole, where it is at rest, to be put in motion 
in a straight line toward the equator, we can easily see how this particle of 
air, coming from the pole, where it did not partake of the diurnal motioif 
of the earth, would, in consequence of its vis inertia, find, as it travels 
south, the earth slipping under it, as it were, and thus it would appear to 
be coming from the northeast and going toward the southwest : in other 
words, it would be a northeast wind. 



Questions. — 414. Where have we two zones of perpetual winds ? What are we safe in 
assuming ? Why ? 415. Where must this return current be ? Which way do the direet 
and counter-currents turn ? 416. How is this turning caused ? Explain. 



132 



TRADE-WINDS, 




Diagram, of tlie Trade--wmds. 

417. " On the other hand, we can perceive how a like particle of atmos- 
phere that starts from the equator, to take the place of the other at the 
pole, would, as it travels north, in consequence of its vis inertia, be going 
toward the east faster than the earth. It would, therefore, appear to be 
blowing from the southwest, and going toward the northeast, and exactly 
in the opposite direction to the other. Writing south for north, the same 
takes place between the south pole and the equator. Now this is the pro- 
cess which is actually going on in Nature ; and if we take the motions of 
these two particles as the type of the motion of all, we shall have an illus- 
tration of the great currents in the air, the equator being near one of the 
nodes,* and there being two systems of currents — an upper and an under — 
between it and each pole. 

418. " Let us return now to our northern particle, and follow it in a round 



Questions. — il7. Explain the direction of the return current. 418. Describe the course 
of a particle of atmosphere proceeding from the polar regions toward the equator. What 
does it meet near the parallel of 30° ? 



* Nodes, thfr point where the ascending and descending currents cross each other. 



TKADE-WINDS. 133 

from the north pole to the equator and back again, supposing it, for the 
present, to turn back toward the pole after reaching the equator. Setting 
off from the polar regions, this particle of air, for some reason, which does 
not appear to have been satisfactorily explained by philosophers, travels in 
the upper regions of the atmosphere, until it gets near the parallel of 30° 
Here it meets, also in the clouds, the hypothetical particle that is going from 
the equator to take its place toward the pole. 

419. " About this parallel of 30°, then, these two particles meet, press 
against each other with the whole amount of their motive power, produce a 
calm and an accumulation of atmosphere sufficient to balance the pressure 
from the two winds north and south. From under this bank of calms, two 
surface currents of wind are ejected : one toward the equator, as the north- 
east trades— the other toward the pole, as the southwest passage winds — 
supposing that we are now considering what takes place in the northern 
hemisphere only. 

420. " These winds come out at the lower surface of the calm region, and 
consequently the place of the air borne away in this manner must be sup- 
plied, we may infer, by dovraward currents from the superincumbent air of 
the calm region. Like the case of a vessel of water which has two streams 
from opposite directions running in at the top and two of equal capacity 
discharging in opposite directions at the bottom — the motion of the water in 
the vessel would be downward : so is the motion of air in this calm zone. 
The barometer, in this calm region, is said by Humboldt and others to stand 
higher than it does either to the north or to the south of it ; and this is 
another proof as to the banking up here of the atmosphere and pressure 
from its downward motion. 

421. " Following our imaginary particle of air from the north across this 
calm belt we now feel it moving on the surface of the earth as the north- 
east trade-wind, and as such it continues till it arrives near the equator, 
where it meets a like hypothetical particle, which has blown as the south- 
east trade-wind. Here, at this equatorial place of meeting, there is another 
conflict of winds, and another calm region, for a northeast and southeast 
wind can not blow at the same time in the same place. The two particles 
have been put in motion by the same power ; they meet with equal force, 
and, therefore, at their place of meeting, are stopped in their course. Here, 
therefore, there is also a calm belt. 

422. " Warmed by the heat of the sun, and pressed on each side by the 
whole force of the northeast and southeast trades, these two hypothetical 
particles, taken as the type of the whole, ascend. This operation is the re- 

QuesUo7is.— 419. What results follow ? What surface currents are here^ejected ? 420. 
From what part of the calm region do these wnnds come, and what consequently may be 
inferred ? Illustrate the downward motion of the air in this calm zone. What is another 
proof of the banking up here of the atmosphere and pressure from its downward motion? 
421. When does the particle of air move after leaving the calm belt? What occurs at the 
equatorial place of meeting ? 422. Why does it here ascend ? Describe its track in as 
it retoms to the pole. 



134 TRADE-WINDS. 

verse of that which took place at the other meeting near the parallel of 30°. 
This imaginary particle now returns to the upper regions of the atmosphere 
again, and travels there until it meets, near the calm belt of Cancer, its 
fellow-particle from the north, where it descends as before, and continues 
to flow toward the pole as a surface wind from southwest. Entering the 
polar regions obliquely, it is pressed upon by similar currents coming from 
every meridian ; here our imaginary particle approaches the higher par- 
allels more and more obliquely, until it, with all the rest, is whirled about 
the pole in a continued circular gale : finally reaching the vortex, it is car- 
ried upward to the regions of atmosphere above, whence it commences again 
its circuit to the south as an upper current. * 

423. " Now the course we have imagined an atom of air to take is this : an 
ascent at P, at the north pole ; an efflux thence as an upper current, until 
it meets G (also an upper current), over the calms of Cancer. Here there is 
supposed to be a descent, as shown by the arrows along the wavy lines which 
envelop the circle. This upper current from the pole now becomes the north- 
east trade wind B, on the surface ; it rises up at the equator, and returns 
thence — we will suppose for the present only — back toward the north pole, 
as G, until it reaches the calms of Cancer, where it descends and is felt on 
the surface as H, the southwest passage wind ; and so the circuit is com- 
pleted for the northern hemisphere." 

424. Nothing excited the wonder of the early navigators so much as the 
east wind which blows regularly within the tropics. The companions of 
Columbus were terrified when they found themselves driven on by continu- 
ous east winds, which seemed to forewarn them that they would never return 
to their country. Fortunately for the fame of the great navigator, and for 
the world, he firmly held on his course, and made the discovery of a new 
continent. 

425. The trade-winds serve important uses to navigators, in facilitating 
the passage of ships round the world. In passing from the Canaries to Cu- 
mana, on the north coast of South America, it is scarcely ever necessary to 
touch the sails of a ship ; and with equal facility a passage is made across 
the Pacific, from Acapulco, on the west coast of Mexico, to the Philippine 
Islands. The customary route of vessels on their outward voyage from New 
York to Canton is by the way of Cape Horn, and thence westwardly through 
the Pacific : the return voyage is by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. If 
a channel were cut through the Isthmus of Panama, the voyage to China 
would be more speedy, agreeable, and safe than the usual route by Cape 
Horn. 

426. All mariners and passengers have spoken with delight of the region 
of the trade-winds. It is noted for the favoring gales, the transparent at- 
mosphere, the splendid sunsets, and the brilliancy of the unclouded heavens. 

Questions. — 423. Illustrate the course an atom of atmosphere is Imagined to take. 424 
Wonder of the early navigators ? The companions of Columbus ? 425. Uses of the trade- 
winds ? Illustrate. Route of an outward and return voyage from New York to Canton ? 
426. For what is the region of the trade-winds noted? 



MONSOONS. 135 

day and night. Columbus, in recording his first voyage into their territory, 
compares the air, soft and refreshing without being cool, to that of the pure 
and balmy April mornings he had experienced in Andalusia. Humboldt, in 
describing the tropical regions, remarks upon the mildness of the climate 
and the beauty of the southern sky. He observed stars seen from infancy 
progressively sinking and finally disappearing below the horizon, an un- 
known firmament unfolding its aspect, and scattered nebulae rivaling in 
splendor the milky way. The Spaniards gave to the zone in which the trade- 
winds are constant the title el Golpo de las Damas, the Sea of the Jjadies, 
on account of the ease with which it may be navigated, the uniform tem- 
perature prevalent night and day, and its pacific aspect. 



LESSON V. 

PERIODICAL WINDS. 



427. Periodical winds are those which regularly prevail at 
a certain time of the year or of the day. The monsoons of the 
Indian Ocean, the Etesian winds of the Mediterranean, and the 
land and sea breezes, are of this class, 

428. Monsoons, from the Malay word moussin, signifying " a 
season," are regular periodical winds which sweep over the In- 
dian Ocean and the whole of Hindoostan, changing their direc- 
tion after an interval of about six months, as the sun moves into 
the northern or southern hemispheres ; hence the term season 
winds, or monsoons. These winds are a modification of the 
trade-winds, occasioned by the position of the sun in different 
seasons, the openings in the chain of islands separating the In- 
dian Ocean from the Pacific, the interposition of the Asiatic 
continent, and the rarefied atmosphere of Africa and Australia. 

429. From 3° south of the equator to the northern shores of 
the Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, 
and the Chinese Sea, a southwest wind prevails from April to 
October, and then a northeast wind sets in, and prevails through 
the next half year, from October to April. While the wind north 

Questions. — 427. What are periodical winds ? Name those which belong to this class. 
42S. What are monsoons ? From what is the term derived ? What is said of these winds? 
429. What are the limits of the region having a southwest wind from April to October? 
What wind prevails in this region from October to April ? Describe the winds which pre- 
vail at different seasons between 3° and 10° south of the line. 



136 MONSOOXS. 

of tlie equator is .southwest, a southeast wind prerails between 
3^ and 10^ south of the line ; and when the wind north of the 
equator is northeast, that south of it is northwest. 

-430. The western boundary of the region of the monsoons is 
the African shore : its eastern limit is supposed to be about the 
meridian of 130^ east longitude ; its northern confine is near the 
parallel of 27^ north latitude ; its southern extremity* has been 
alreacfy stated. The monsoons are much stronger than the trade- 
winds, and may be called gales : they sometimes blow with such 
violence that ships are obliged to reef their sails. They are not 
confined to the ocean, but extend over the whole of Hindoostan 
to the Himalaya Mountains. 

431. Mr. Gaunter, a resident at Madras, gives the foUowing interesting 
account of a storm wMch occurred there during the shifting of these winds : 

" On the 15th of October, the flag-stafi" was struck, as a signal for all ves- 
sels to leave the roads, lest they should be overtaken by the monsoon. On 
that very morning some premonitory symptoms of the approaching war of 
elements had appeared. As the house we occupied overlooked the beach, 
we could behold the setting in of the monsoon in all its gi^and and terrific 
sublimity. The wind, with a force which nothing could resist, bent the 
tufted heads of the tall, slim, cocoa-nut trees almost to the earth, flinging 
the light sand into the air in eddying voi*tices, until the rain had either so 
increased its gravity or beaten it into a mass, as to prevent the wind, from 
raising it. 

432. *' The pale lightning streamed from the clouds in broad sheets of 
flame, which appeared to encircle the heavens as if every element had been 
converted into fire, and the world was on the eve of a general conflagration ; 
whilst the peal, which instantly followed, was like the explosion of a gun- 
powder magazine. The heavens seemed to be one vast reservoir of flame, 
which was propelled from its yoluminous bed by some invisible but omnip- 
otent agency, and threatened to fling its fiery ruin upon every thing around. 
In some parts, however, of the pitchy vapor, by which the skies were by 
this time completely overspread, the lightning was seen only occasionally to 
gli m mer in faint streaks of light, as if struggling, but unable, to e5caf>e from 
its prison, — igniting, but too weak to burst, the impervious bosoms of those 
capacious magazines in which it was at once engendered and pent up. 

433. '•' So heavy and continuotis was the rain, that scarcely any thing save 
those vivid bursts of light, which nothing could arrest or resist, was x>er- 
ceptible through it. The thunder was so painfully loud, that it frequently 
caused the ear to throb; it seemed as if mines were momentarily springing 

Questions. — 430. What is tlie western boundary of the region of monsoons ? Ite eastern 
limit? Ii3 nonhem ? la souihem ? Intensity of the monsoons ? 



ETESIAN WINDS, ETC. 137 

in the heavens, and I could almost fancy that one of the sublimest fictions 
of heathen fable was realized at this moment before me, and that I was 
hearing an assault of the Titans. The surf was raised by the wind and 
scattered in thin billows of foam over the esplanade, which was completely 
powdered with the white, feathery spray. It extended several hundred 
yards from the beach ; fish, upward of three inches long, were found upon 
the flat roofs of houses in the town during the prevalence of the monsoon, 
either blown from the sea by the violence of the gales, or taken up in the 
water-spouts, which are very prevalent in this tempestuous season. 

434. " When these burst, whatever they contain is frequently borne by 
the sweeping blast to a considerable distance over-land, and deposited in 
the most uncongenial situations : so that now, during the violence of these 
tropical storms, fish are found alive on the tops of houses ; nor is this any 
longer a matter of surprise to the established resident in India, who sees 
every year a repetition of this singular phenomenon. During the ^treme 
violence of the storm, the heat was occasionally almost beyond endurance, 
particularly after the first day or two, when the wind would at intervals 
entirely subside, so that not a breath of air could be felt, and the punka 
afforded but a partial relief to that distressing sensation which is caused by 
the oppressive stillness of the air so well known in India." 

435. The monsoons are of great assistance to commerce ; by 
tliem a ship is frequently wafted to a distant port, and aided in 
returning by a monsoon blowing in an opposite direction to that 
which carried her out. 

436. The Etesian* winds are periodical winds which blow 
from the northeast for about six weeks throughout the Mediter- 
ranean, particularly the Levant, where they commence toward 
the middle of July, about nine in the morning, and continue only 
throughout the day. The immense desert of Sahara, south of 
the Mediterranean, deprived of w^ater, and composed of sand and 
flints, become& very highly heated under the influence of an al- 
most vertical sun, and currents are created from the colder 
atmosphere of the north. Hence the passage from Europe to 
Africa in summer is much quicker than the autumn. Periodical 
currents, called nortes, or north-winds, blow from September to 
March in the Gulf of Mexico. They occur also on the Brazil 
coast, from N. E. in the spring, and S. E._in autumn. 

437. Land and sea breezes are supposed to be caused by the 

Questions. — i35. "Cses of monsoons ? 436. What are the Etesian -winds ? Explain how 
they are caused. When and -where do the noHes blow? 437. Ho-w are land and sea 
breezes supposed to be caused ? Describe them. 



* "Erof, a year, a season. 



138 THE ZONE OF CALMS. 

unequal heating of the land and sea On the coasts and islands 
within the tropics, a breeze from the sea daily occurs about nine 
o'clock in the morning, at first blowing gently toward the shore, 
but gradually increasing in force till the middle of the day, when 
it becomes a brisk gale ; after two or three o'clock it begins to 
subside, and is succeeded at evening by a breeze from the land, 
which blows freshly from off the coast during the night, and dies 
away in the morning when the sea-breeze commences. 

438. These breezes are particularly strong along the coast of 
Malabar, where it is said that their influence is felt 60 miles 
from land. They are also very perceptible in the Mediterranean 
and ifi the East and West India Islands. The regular inland 
breezes experienced in the morning and evening, in some situa- 
tions, are produced by changes in the density of the atmosphere, 
affected by the radiating properties of neighboring snow-clad 
mountains, marshes, or sandy deserts. 

439. The Zone of Calms, represented on the map, has a breadth of about 
6° ; but varies with the seasons from 9^ to \(P. It is frequently interrupted 
by violent storms. " When the vessel on its voyage to the south approaches 
the equator in the midst of the Atlantic Ocean, anxious fear seizes the 
crew. Sooner or later, according to the time of year, the favoring wind 
which had brought them thus far, becomes weaker and weaker ; at first it 
ceases for a little while, and at last drops entirely. Around extends the 
sea, an endless glassy surface. The ship, hitherto speeding onward with a 
bird-like flight, lies bound on the crystal fluid. The rays of the sun, fall- 
ing perpendicularly, glow through and through the narrow space in which 
the men are inclosed. The deck burns through the soles of the shoes. A 
stifling vapor fills the cabins. A fortnight has the ruler of the sea lain im- 
movable in the same spot. The store of water is exhausted. Glowing thirst 
glues the parched tongue to the palate. Each man looks upon his companion 
in suffering with the wild, murderous glance of despair. 

440. " The sun sinks below the horizon, the evening sky is illumined by a 
peculiar coppery redness ; and with the advancing night, arises a black wall 
to the eastward ; a low, shrill pipe resounds from the distance, from whence 
a streak of foam advances over the black ocean. The ship sways and rocks 
upon the irregular waves, but the sail still hangs against the mast, flapping 
dismally upon the spars. Suddenly the storm bursts over with frightful 
roar ; with a shriek the sails are torn asunder, and fly in ribbons ! A loud 
crack ! a second, and the mainmast goes overboard ! By a violent effort the 
crew succeed in cutting through the remaining ropes, and the ship now flies 

Questions. — 438. Where do these breezes prevail? How are regular inland breezea 
produced ? 439. How wide is the Zone of Calms ? 



HURRICANES. 139 

over the ocean— now borne high upon the hacks of the waves— now hurled 
down into the depths ; so that every seam cracks and groans as though it 
would part asunder. The thunder rolls unceasingly ; continuous lightning 
darts through the agitated atmosphere ; the rain falls in streams instead of 
drops. Ten times the sailors give themselves up for lost, when the quaking 
bark falls into the trough of the sea, and as many times does it rise over 
the waves again. 

441. " At last the storm lulls ; single shocks follow, always at longer in- 
tervals ; the waves become smoother, and when the consoling sun rises in 
the east, it illuminates the same dreary picture as on the former day. Mir- 
ror-hke the endless surface again expands, and in eight days is the store of 
collected water exhausted ; and again the silent specters creep about and 
turn murderous looks upon each other. A new storm, and a new calm, and 
so in frightful alternation, until at last the ship is driven into the region of 
the peaceful trade- wind on the other side of the equator. Hundreds of 
ships have gone down in storms here ; hundreds lost their crews by the most 
frightful of deaths, — that of thirst ; and those who have passed the fearful 
region of calms, turn in earnest worship to Heaven with thanks for their 
new- won life."* 



; LESSON VI. 

HURRICANES. 

• 442. The terms hurricane, whirlwind, water-spout, land-spout, 
sand-pillar, tornado, white squall, pampero, etc., have been ap- 
plied to rotary movements of the atmosphere in dififerent parts 
of the world. 

443. Hurricanes are revolving storms which occur in the West 
Indies and in the Indian Ocean. Of a similar kind are the ty- 
phoons in the Chinese Seas. These circulating movements oc- 
cupy a space from 50 to 500 miles in diameter. They revolve 
the more rapidly the nearer the center, up to a certain distance, 
within which there is a calm. 

444. The center of rotation advances steadily along a definite 
line upon the globe, with a velocity varying from 2 to 30 or 40 

Questions.— 442. What terms have been applied to the rotary movements of the atmos- 
phere ? 443. What are hurricanes ? What space do these circulatinfif movements occupy ? 
Where do they revolve the more rapidly ? 444. What is the velocity of the center of rota- 
tion ? What is a remarkable fact ? What is the rotation of the storms in the northern 
hemisphere ? In the southern hemisphere ? 

* Schleiden'a " Lecture about the Weather." 



140 MOISTURE. 

miles per hour. It is a remarkable fact, that in the same hemi- 
sphere these whirling storms always revolve the same way, but 
that this direction is opposite in opposite hemispheres. In the 
northern hemisphere their rotation is retrograde, or in a direction 
opposite to the hands of a watch. In the southern hemisphere 
their rotation is direct, conformable to the hands of a watch. 

445. There are three well-known hurricane regions — the 
West Indies, the Indian Ocean, and the Chinese Sea. The gen- 
eral course of the West Indian hurricanes is from the Leeward 
Islands N. W., passing around the shores of the Gulf of Mexico 
or across it, then followmg the Gulf Stream and terminating in 
the Atlantic, or exhausting their fury in the United States. From 
Oct. 3, 1780, to Aug. 25, 1837, inclusive, 38 hurricanes occurred 
m this region, in the following months : in June, 1 ; July, 4 ; 
August, 13; September, 10; October, 8; exclusive of 2, the 
months of which have not been recorded. Thus they are very 
rare in June, and most frequent in August. The only instance 
m June occurred in 1831, when Trinidad, Tobago, and Grenada 
were devastated, before supposed to be exempt from hurricanes. 

446. The hurricanes of the Indian Ocean come from the N. E., 
near Sumatra and Java, and travel to the S. W. toward Rodri- 
guez and the Mauritius They occur chiefly from December to 
April, the hot season in that hemisphere ; are very rare in No- 
vember and May, and are quite unknown during the other months 
of the year. 

447. In the Chinese Sea, hurricanes, there styled typhoons, 
range from 10^ to 30° N. They occur from June to November, 
after an interval of three or four years. 



LESSON YII 

MOISTURE. 



448. If we place a vessel of Avater in the open air on a warm 
day, the quantity of the fluid will soon be sensibly diminished, 

Questions. — 445. Which are the three well-known hurricane regions? What is the 
general course of the West Indian hurricanes ? When are hurricanes in this region most 
rare, and when most frequent? 446. Describe the hurricanes of the Indian Ocean. When 
do they chiefly occur ? 447. What is said of the typhoons ? When and how often do they 
occur? 44S. What will happen if we place a vessel of water in the open air on a warm 
day ? Where does evaporation transpire on a grand scale ? 



MOISTURE. 141 

or evaporated, being converted by the heat into invisible vapor, 
and diffused through the air. In like manner evaporation trans- 
pires upon a grand scale from the great collections of water on 
the earth's surface, the oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as from 
moist ground. It I's subject to diurnal and annual variations. 

449. The quantity of vapor diffused through the air is least 
in the morning before sunrise. As the temperature rises with 
the ascent of the sun, evaporation increases. The heat of raid- 
day causes the vapors to rise into the upper regions, and hence 
the greatest degree of dryness is generally felt during the day- 
time, though evaporation is then going on most rapidly. In 
January the quantity of vapor, like the mean temperature of the 
air, is at its minimum ; it increases from that period, and in July 
attains its maximum ; it then decreases to the end of the year. 

450. The moisture in the atmosphere is an element on which 
the life of plants and animals as much depends as on tempera- 
ture. The healthfulness of climate is greatly influenced by the 
dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. As resulting from the 
action Of heat on water, the quantity of vapor diminishes with 
the temperature from the equator to the poles. It decreases also 
as we pass from coasts into the interior of continents. This 
rule is confirmed in the mterior of the United States, in the mid- 
dle of the plains of the Orinoco, in the steppes of Siberia, the 
deserts of Asia and Africa, and the central parts of Australia. 
In the temperate zone, in general, the annual evaporation is es- 
timated at between 36 and 37 inches of water. In the torrid 
zone, at Guadaloupe, it has been found to amount to 97 inches, 
and at Cumana to 100 inches. 

451. The air is only capable of receiving a certain quantity 
of vapor. Its capacity depends upon its temperature, and is in- 
variable in its extent at the same temperature. According to 
Professor Leslie, air at the freezing point is capable of holding 
moisture equal to the 160th part of its own weight; at the tem- 



. — 449. When is the quantity of vapor diffused through the air the least? 
When does evaporation increase? What does the heat of mid-day cause? In what 
month is the quantity of vapor at its minimum, and in what at its maximum? 450. What 
is said of the moisture in the atmosphere? How does the quantity of vapor diminish? 
Annual evaporation in the temperate zone ? In the torrid zone ? 451. What is said of 
the capacity of air for receiving vapor ? Upon what does it depend ? Give its capacity 
at different states of temperature. 



142 MISTS AND FOGS. 

perature of 59°, the 80th part ; at that of 86o, the 40th part ; at 
11 30, the 20th part; and at that of 140°, the 10th part. 

452. When a volume of air contains as much aqueous vapor 
as at its particular temperature it is capable of receiving, it is then 
said to be at the point of saturation, being as humid as can be. 
If the temperature. then rises, it will be capable of receiving more, 
but if it falls, some of the contained vapor will be rejected, and 
become visible as mist. Thus the effect of a change of temper- 
ature upon a saturated volume of air is analogous to that of the 
hand relaxing or tightening its grasp on a piece of imbibing 
sponge. 

453. It has been frequently observed that the summits of some 
mountains are constantly covered with clouds. The formation 
of such clouds may be thus explained : The winds, laden with 
vapor from lower and warmer districts, in passing over such 
ranges are forced up into a colder region, where they are obliged 
to part with a portion of the vapor, which thus forms a cloudy 
state of the atmosphere. 

454. Mists and fogs are formed when the air is saturated, and 
generally when the moist soil, or the water of lakes and rivers 
is warmer than the air, the vapors of which are immediately 
condensed. In like manner the vapor of the air breathed from 
our mouths in winter becomes condensed and visible. Mists 
differ in no respect from clouds except in position, being on the 
surface of the earth, instead of being suspended at a height in 
the atmosphere. 

455. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland 
arise from the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which flow to that locality, 
the temperature of which is much higher than that of the saturated air. 

456. Soon after sunset, in calm and clear weather, mists are frequently 
formed over the beds of lakes and rivers, while the adjacent land is free 
from them. This arises from the land more rapidly losing its heat by radi- 
ation than the lake or river. The air over the land necessarily becomes the 
coldest; and when the situation of the ground.is such as to bring the cold 
air of the land over the warmer water, a fog confined to its expanse ensues. 

Questions. — 452. When is a volume of air said to be at the point of saturation ? 453. 
What has been frequently observed ? How may the formation of such clouds be explained ? 
454. When are mists and fogs formed ? How do mists differ from clouds ? 455. Origin of 
the mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland ? 456. Explain why mists 
are frequently formed over the beds of lakes and rivers while the adjacent land is freo 
from them. 



CLOUDS. 143 

457. Dew is formed by the gradual condensation of the vapors 
of the atmosphere. After sunset in summer, when the great di- 
urnal has filled the air with moisture, and the earth is gradually- 
cooled by radiation under a clear sky, the atmosphere in contact 
with the surface is chilled, and has its capacity to retain the 
aqueous vapors lessened, which are gradually and gently depos- 
ited in the form of fluid drops, called dew. In some countries 
dew supplies the place of rain. In Palestine and western Asia 
in general, where showers are unknown for several months in 
succession, the dew formed at night moistens the earth, and sus- 
tains the vegetation, being often so abundant as completely to 
saturate the tents, baggage, and clothing of travelers exposed to it. 

458. As all objects have not the same capacity for radiating 
heat, some cooling much more rapidly than others, we frequently 
find certain bodies densely covered with dew, as grass and leaves, 
while the bare grounds, metals, stones, and wood are compar- 
atively dry. A thermometer laid on a grass-plot on a cloudless 
night has been upward of 16° lower than another laid at the 
same time on a gravel walk. Hence there has been a much more 
copious deposition of dew on the grass than on the walk, — the 
herbs needing the nourishment thus receiving it in preference to 
the bare soil — a striking evidence of an all-wise Being operating 
in the economy of nature.* 



LESSON YIII. 

CLOUDS. 

459. Clouds are masses of visible vapor like mists, floating 
in the atmosphere, and occurring at a distance from the surface 
of the earth. They exhibit an endlessly diversified outline, a 
very varying density, and appear at difl'erent elevations. The 
dense clouds are usually formed toward noon, when the vapors 
are raised up by the ascending currents of air and then com 
densed by the lower temperature of the upper regions. 

Questions. — 457. How is dew formed ? Explain particularly the operation of Its forma- 
tion. What is said of the dews of Palestine and western Asia ? 458. Why does dew col- 
lect more on some bodies than others ? 459. What are clouds ? What is said of them ? 



* Eev. Thomas Milner. 



144: 



CLOUDS. 



460. Though clouds are generally composed of vapor, they 
may consist of frozen particles. In winter", during severe cold, 
we can often observe that the vapors which rise are composed 
of brilliant needles, that glisten in the sun and resemble small 
flakes of snow. The same thing must take place in the higher 
regions of the atmosphere. There exist, therefore, snow clouds 
and clouds of vapor of water. 




1, 1. Cirrus. 3. Cumulus. 5. Stratus. 2, 2. Cirro- Cumulus. 4. Nimbus 



QuetiMis. — 160. Of wLat arc duuds (•(iiiii-so.! ? V.hiit t\v<. kin.U? 



CLOUD6. 145 

461. Notwithstanding the varied aspect ol clouds, they may 
be arranged into three principal classes — the cirrus, the cumulus^ 
and the stratus. 

462. Cirrus — Curlcloud. Fig. 1. — The cirrus (the cafs-tail 
of sailors) is composed of thin filaments, variously disposed, in 
the form of woolly hair, a crest of feathers, or slender net-work. 
The cirri appear in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and 
are the most elevated of the clouds. Viewed from the summits 
of high mountains, while the traveler looks down upon other 
forms of clouds, he beholds these still above him, and apparently 
at as great a distance as when seen from the plains. The ap- 
pearance wof true cirrus, or curlcloud, is supposed to indicate 
variable weather ; when most conspicuous and abundant, to pre- 
sage high winds and rain ; and when the streaming fibers have 
pointed in a particular direction for any length of time, the gale 
may be expected to blow from that quarter. 

463. Cumulus — Stackencloud. Fig. 3. — This form of cloud 
{ball of cotton of sailors) occurs in the lower regions of the at- 
mosphere, and is easily recognized. It is commonly under the 
control of the surface winds, and frequently exhibits a veiy mag- 
nificent appearance. It consists of a vast hemispherical or con- 
ical heap of vapor rising gradually from an irregular horizontal 
base and increasing upward. Hence the names, cumulus, a pile 
or heap, and stackencloud, a number of detached clouds stacked 
into one large and elevated pile. 

464. Cumuli are indications of fine weather. They begin to 
form soon after sunrise from irregular and scattered specks of 
cloud ; as the morning advances the clouds enlarge ; and early 
in the afternoon, when the temperature of the day is at its max- 
imum, the cumulus attains its greatest magnitude. The cloud 
decreases as the sun declines, and is usually broken up toward 
sunset. The cumulus may be called the cloud of day, from the 
interval between morning and evening generally measuring the 
term of its existence. Its appearance considerably varies in the 
detail, and often exhibits a brilliant silvery light, and a copper 

Questionft. — 461. Into what three principal classes may clouds be arranged ? 462. De- 
scribe the cirrus or curlcloud. What is said of the height of the cirri ? What is the cirrus 
supposed to indicate? 463. Describe the cumulus or stackencloud. Of what does it con- 
sist ? 464. What do cumuli indicate ? Describe their successive changes during the day. 

7 



146 CLOUDS. 

tinge, when in opposition to the sun, indicating a highly electrical 
condition of the atmosphere. 

465. Stratus^Fallcloud. Fig. 5. — This cloud consists of 
horizontal bands near the surface of the earth. It belongs to 
the night, forming at sunset and disappearing at sunrise. This 
class of clouds comprehends all those fogs and creeping mists 
which sometimes spread like a mantle over the surface of the 
valleys, plains, lakes, and rivers. 

466. To the above primary varieties three transition or com- 
posite forms are added. Cirrocumulus — Sondercloud. Fig. 2. 
This name designates the feathery accumulated cloud, familiarly 
known as fleecy, intermediate between cirrus and cumulus. It 
consists of small patches, arranged in extensive beds, the com- 
ponent parts being quite distinct or asunder. Cirrostratus — 
Wanecloud and Cumulo stratus — Twaincloud (not represented in 
the cut), are combinations, — ^the former of the cirrus and stratus, 
and the latter of the cumulus and stratus. 

467. Nimbus — Raincloud. Fig. 4. — Any of the preceding 
modifications may pass over into the actual rainy clouds, first 
exhibiting a great increase of density, and a bluish-black tone 
of color, then putting on a lighter shade, or gray obscurity, and 
becoming fringed at the edges. 

468. Clouds are generally higher within the tropics than in 
the temperate zones ; and in the temperate zones they are com- 
monly higher in summer than in winter. The cirri are the high- 
est clouds. They are supposed to range from 3 to 5 miles above 
the level of the earth. Kaemtz states that during a stay of 
eleven weeks within sight of the Finsteraarhorn, upward of 
14,000 feet high, he never observed any cirri below the summit 
of the mountain. It is highly probable that they consist of flakes 
of snow. 

Questions. — 465. Of what does the stratus or fallcloud consist? When does it prevail ? 
What does this class of clouds comprehend ? 466. Describe the cirrocumulus or sonder- 
cloud. What other composite forms are mentioned ? 46T. Change to the nimbus or rain- 
cloud ? 468. What is the comparative height of clouds in different zones and seasons ? 
Height of the cirri ? What does Kaemtz state ? 



LESSON IX. 

RAIN. 

9. Rain is water, which, originally taken up into the at- 
mosphere in the state of vapor, is returned to the earth in thp 
form of liquid drops. It is produced by the continued conden- 
sation of vapor. Rain may begin to fall, and yet not reach 
the ground, being resolved into invisible vapor on arriving at 
strata of air removed from the point of saturation. For the same 
reason, rain-drops may become smaller in their descent, a por- 
tion being evaporated, and less rain arrive at the earth's surface 
than at a certain height above it. Usually the drops increase in 
their fall, bringing with them the low temperature of the upper 
regions. 

470. The following are examples of very extraordinary showers : 

1822 Oct. 25, at Genoa, 30 inches of rain fell in 24 hours. 

1827 May 27, at Geneva, there fell 6 inches of rain in 3 hours. 

1841 June 4, at Cuiseaux, a small town in the valley of the Saone, there 

fell about 11 inches in 68 hours. 

At Cayenne, Admiral Roussin collected 10 inches in 10 hours. 

471. Rain is very unequally distributed over the regions of 
the globe. 1. The average annual quantity of rain is the great- 
est in tropical climates, and diminishes as we recede from the 
equator to the poles. 2. It decreases as we pass from maritime 
to inland countries, because the land supplies a less quantity of 
vapor than the sea. 3. More rain falls in mbuntainous than in 
low level districts, lofty heights arresting the clouds, and pro- 
moting the condensation of vapor by their cold summits. 4. 
The result of experiment shows that a greater amount of rain 
falls while the sun is below than when above the horizon. 

472. The diminution of the average annual quantity of rain from the 
equator to the poles, appears from the following Table : 

San Luis de Maranhao lat. 3° S. is equal to 276 inches. 

Parimaribo, Guiana " 6° N. " 229 " 

Questions. — 469. What is rain ? How produced ? 470. Give examples of very extra- 
ordinary showers. 471. What is said of the unequal distribution of rain ? Where is the 
average annual qu.nntity the greatest? Where does it decrease? What is observed of 
mountainous districts ? What does the result of experiment show ? 472. What is the an- 
nual quantity of rain in different places? The annual quantity within the Tropics of the 
Old World ? Of the New World ? Average for the Tropics generally ? Annual quantity 
in the Temperate Zones of the New World ? In the Temperate Zones of the Old World ? 
In the Temperate Zone generally ? 



148 RAIN. 

Sierra Leone, Guinea " 9° N. is equal to 189 inches. 

Island of Grenada, West Indies. " 12° " 108 " 

Hayana, Cuba.. "23° " 90 " 

Calcutta "22° " 81 " 

Macao, China ''22° " 68 " 

Charleston, South Carolina "33° " 47 

Rome ,.. = "42° " 89 " 

Edinburg "65° «^ 24 " 

St. Petersburg "60° " 17 "' 

Uleaborg, Finland "65° " 13 " 

Annual quantity of Rain within the Tropics of the New World. 115 inches. 

Annual quantity within the Tropics of the Old World 76 " 

Average for the Tropics generally . .' 951 " 

Annual quantity of Rain in the Temperate Zones of the New 

World (United States) 37 inches. 

In the Temperate Zones of the Old World (Europe) 31| " 

Temperate Zone generally 34| " 

473. Although the amount of rain is greater within the tropics than in 
the temperate zone, yet the niimber of rainy days is less, because two 
seasons divide the year — wet and dry ; and during the dry season entire 
months frequently pass away without a drop falling or a cloud being seen. 
In the temperate zone also, in passing from south to north, the number of 
rainy days increases, although the intensity of rain diminishes. 

Annual number of rainy days in North of Syria 54 

Straits of Gibraltar , . : 68 

Plains of Lombardy 90 

Buda, Hungary 112 

Plains of Germany 141 

England and West France 152 

Poland 158 

St. Petersburg 169 

Netherlands 170 

East of Ireland 208 

474. Countries situated in the vicinity of the sea receive, as we have re- 
marked, a larger amount of rain than those inland. This is exemplified in 
the interior of the IJnited States, of the llanos of the Orinoco, of the Si- 
berian steppes, of Australia, and on comparing the amount of precipitation 
in inland and maritime countries. It declines from an annual fall of be- 
tween 30 and 35 inches on the shores of Great Britain and France to from 
15 to 13 inches as the borders of Asia are approached. Mountains produce 

Questions. — 473. Where is the number of rainy days less than in the temperate zone, and 
•why ? "What is observed in passing from south to north in the temperate zone ? State tbe 
annual number of rainy days in different places. 474. What is said of countries situated 
in the vicinity of the sea? How is this exemplified ? With what does the annual number 
of rainy days decrease ? Illustrate. 



KAIN. 149 

several exceptions to this rule. The annual number of rainy days aecreases 

also with the increased distance from the sea. 

West coast of France 152 days. 

Interior of France 14:7 " 

Kasan, Plains of the Volga • 90 " 

Interior of Siberia 60 " 

475. The annual fall of rain in mountainous districts, as compared with 
that of low and level countries, is sometimes very striking. At Keswick — 
a mountainous district in England — the annual average depth of rain is 67 
inches, while on the sea-coast it is not half that amount. On the Great St. 
Bernard it is 63 inches, and at Paris only 21. " The description of Judea 
by the sacred writer, contrasting it with the flat lands of Egypt, though 
not intended to be philosophic, is in harmony with the teachings of science 
respecting the important part performed by mountains in the general-econ- 
omy of the earth : — ' For the land whither thou goest in to possess it, is not 
as the land of Egypt, from whence ye came out ; but the land whither ye 
go to possess it, is a land of hills and valleys, and drinketh water of the rain 
of heaven.' By arresting the course of the clouds, and producing a con- 
densation of aqueous vapor when a warm current of air lights upon their 
cold summits, the elevations contribute to precipitate the moisture of the 
atmosphere, often amid a terrible display of electric phenomena — a blaze 
of fiery horrors, and the echo of heart-thrilling sounds."* 

476. In some portions of the world rain is entirely unknown, 
or occurs so scLlom as to be quite a phenomenon. The rainless 
regions of the New World comprise portions of California and 
Guatemala, the Mexican table-land, and the coast line of ieru. 
Those of the Old World comprehend an immense territory, 
stretching from Morocco, through the Sahara, a part of Egypt, 
Arabia, and Persia, into Beloochistan, with another great zone, 
commencing north of the Hindoo-Koosh and Himalayas, includ- 
ing the table-land of Tibet, the desert of Gobi, and a portion of 
Mongolia. 

477. The rains of most tropical countries are periodical, — 
seasons of extreme humidity regularly alternating with those 
of excessive drought. The length of time of the rainy season 
differs in different districts, but lasts generally from three to five 

Questions. — 475. What facts illustrate the difiFerence between mountainous districts and 
low. and level countries, with respect to the fall of rain ? What is remarked of the de- 
scription of Judea by the sacred writer? 476. What do the rainless regions of the New 
World comprise ? What, those of the Old World ? 477. What is said of the rains of most 
tropical countries ? Length of the rainy seasons ? When do they commence at Panama, 
etc. ? Violence of these tropical showers ? 

* Eev. Thomas Milner. 



150 SNOW. 

months. The periodical rains commence in Panama, on the 
west coast ol i\merica, m uie eariy part of March ; in Africa, 
near the equator, and on the banks of the Orinoco, they begin in 
April ; in the countries watered by the Senegal, and at San Bias, 
in California, they begin in June. The violence of these tropical 
showers may be inferred from the large annual amount of rain, 
and from its fall being limited to a few months, and to a few 
hours during the day. The drops are enormous, very close to- 
gether, and fall with such rapidity as to occasion a sensation of 
pain if they strike against the skin. 

478. In both continents the districts which have their periodical rains are 
subject to an occasional intermission, and become rainless for considerable 
intervals, the drought inflicting terrible suffering on man and beast. Such 
a 23eriod happened between the years 1827 and 1830 in the state of Buenos 
Ayres, and is known by the name of the gran seco, or the great drought. 
This interval was very destructive to animals. The loss of cattle in the 
province of Buenos Ayres alone, was estimated at one million head. Cattle 
in herds of thousands rushed into the Parana, and being exhausted by 
hunger they were unable to crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were 
drowned. 



LESSON X. 

SNOW AND HAIL. 



479. Snow is nothing more than rain congealed before it falls 
to the earth. Snow-flakes exhibit forms of exquisite beauty, 
regularity, and endless variety. These varied shapes are as- 
sumed while the body passes from the liquid to the solid shape. 
The tendency of wate to crystallize, while in the process of con- 
gelation, may be observed in winter on panes of glass. 

480. A microscope applied to a flake of snow will unfold its 
wonderful mode of structure. It is only in the polar regions 
that snow assumes its most beautiful and varied forms. Captain 
Scoresby has figured ninety-six different varieties, which he dis- 
covered during his Arctic voyages, and which he distributed into 

Questions. — 478. To what are the rainless districts of both continents subject? Ex- 
ample? Destruction of cattle? 479. "What is snow? What do snow-flakes exhibit? 
When are these varied forms assumed? 480. In what region does snow assume its most 
varied forms ? How many varieties discovered by Captain Scoresby, and how distributed? 
What does Kaemfz observe ? 



SNOW 



151 



classes of lamellar,* spicular,t and pyramidal crystals, as shown 
in the annexed representation. It will be seen that the annexed 
forms are mostly hexagonal J stars, and consequently snow-flakes 




Cjjp rf.3 

LSD sToS 



Various Forras of Snow Crystals. 

* Lamellar, composed of thin plates or scales. t SpictrLAE, resembling a dart. 
$ Hexagonal, having six sides and nnsles. 



152 HAIL. 

belong to the hexagonal system of crystals. Kaemtz observes 
that flakes which fall at the same time have generally the same 
form ; but if there is an interval between two consecutive falls 
of snow, the forms of the second are observed to differ from 
those of the first, although always alike among themselves. 

481. The limits of the fall of snow at the level. of the sea, in 
the northern hemisphere > are about the parallel of 30° in Amer- 
ica, which cuts the southern part of the United States ; 43° in 
the center of the North Atlantic ; and 36° in the Old World, the 
latitude of Algiers. But for several degrees above these limits 
its appearance is rare and brief. 

482. Snow performs an important part in the general economy 
of nature. In winter it serves as a mantle to keep the ground 
warm, and thus protect vegetation from being destroyed by the 
frost, or by cold biting winds. Accumulated on elevated mount- 
ain chains, it affords, by its thawmg, a regular supply to rivers 
and to the interior reservoirs of the earth, while in low latitudes 
it tempers the heat of warm regions. 

483. Hail appears to be partly the result of a very intense 
degree of cold being rapidly produced in the atmosphere ; it is 
supposed to be also somewhat dependent upon electricity, which 
is almost always powerfully developed durmg hail-storms. In 
very high latitudes it is unknown, and it is also rare at the level 
of the sea within the tropics. The icy particles which fall vary 
in shape and size. True hail is an opaque mass, and has gen- 
erally the form of a pear, or of a mushroom ; large hailstones 
are surrounded by a thick coat of ice, and are composed of 
alternate layers of snow and ice ; no one has ever seen hail- 
stones formed entirely of transparent ice. 

484. Many instances are well authenticated of hailstones haying a cir- 
cnmference of from 6 to 9 inches, and a weight of from 12 to 14 ounces ; but 
much larger masses are recorded. June 15, 1829, the hail beat in the roofs 
of the houses at Cazorta, in Spain, — some of the hailstones weighing up- 
wards of 4 lbs. avoirdupois. In Hungary, May 8, 1832, a block of ice fell. 

Questions.— i^l. Limit of the fiill of snow in America? In the center of the North At- 
lantic? In the Old World? 4S2. What are some of the uses of snow? 48-3. Of what 
does hail appear to be the result? Upon what is it supposed to be also somewhat depend- 
ent? Where is it unknown and where rare? Appearance of true hail? 484. Size of 
some hailstones observed ? Examples of destructive effects of hail ? What is remarked 
of these enormous mns«ps ? 



CLIMATE. 



163 



abo-Qt 39 inches in breadth and length, and 27 inches in depth. Mr. Dar- 
win mentions a fall of hail in the state of Buenos Ayres which killed a large 
number of wild animals, ostriches, and smaller birds. These enormous 
masses are either the fragments of a thick sheet of ice suddenly formed, and 
broken in the atmosphere in falling, or are due to the union of a great num- 
ber of hailstones in their descent. 




Snow y^oTrQ 



LESSON XI 



CLIMATE. 



485. Climate, in its relation to animal and vegetable exist- 
ence, constitutes one of the most interesting and important sub- 
jects belonging to physical geography. The term, as it is com- 
monly understood, denotes the temperature of the air in the va- 
rious regions of the globe ; but taken in its more general sense, 
it signifies all those states and changes of the atmosphere which 
sensibly affect our organs, — temperature, humidity, variation of 
atmospheric pressure, the purity of the atmosphere, or its admix- 
ture with more or less deleterious exhalations, and lastly, the 
degree of habitual transparency of the air and serenity of the 
sky, w^hich has an important influence on the feelings and the 
whole mental disposition of man. 

Questions. — 485. What is said of climate ? What does the term climate commonly de- 
note ? Taken in its more general sense, what does it signify ? 

7* 



154 CLIMATE. 

486. Climate is determined by a variety of causes, the chief 
of which are : 1 . The latitude of a country ; that is, its geo- 
graphical position with reference to the equator. 2. Elevation 
of the land above the sea-level. 3. The proximity to, or re- 
moteness of a country from, the sea. 4. The slope of a country, 
or the aspect it presents to the sun's course. 5. The position 
and direction of mountain chains. 6. The nature of the soil. 7. 
The degree of cultivation and improvement at which the country 
has arrived. 8. The prevalent winds. 9. The annual quantity 
of rain that falls in a country. 

487. (1) The latitude of a country, and the consequent direc- 
tion in which the solar rays fall upon its surface, are the princi- 
pal causes of the temperature to which it is subject. At the 
equator, and within the tropics, the greatest heat is experienced, 
because the sun is always vertical to some place within those 
limits, and the solar action is more intense in proportion as the 
rays are perpendicular to the earth. As we recede from the 
equator, they fall more obliquely ; and because fewer of them are 
spread over a larger space, they are less powerful, and conse- 
quently less influential in promoting temperature. It has been 
calculated that, out of 10,000 rays falling upon the earth's at- 
mosphere, 8,123 arrive at a given point if they come perpen- 
dicularly ; 7,024, if the angle of direction is 50° ; 2,821, if it is 
7° ; and only 5 if the direction is horizontal. 

488. The latitude of a place is therefore of the first import- 
ance in determining its temperature, since a decrease of heat 
takes places with an increase of latitude as we travel, at the 
same level above the sea, from the equator toward the poles. 
This is true of countries lying between the tropics and the poles, 
but it is not true of places situated between the tropics and the 
equator. 

489. " If the ecliptic, as shown on a terrestrial globe, be examined, it 
will be seen that toward the northern and southern limits, for a consider- 
able distance, it neither approaches nor recedes from the equator or the 

QuesUo7is.—4:'i&. What are the principal causes which determine climate ? 487. What 
principally determine the temperature of a country ? Why is the greatest heat experienced 
within the tropics ? What happens as we recede from the equator ? 488. Why is the lat- 
itude of a place of the first importance in determining its temperature ? Is this true of 
countries lying between the tropics? 489. Explain why a greater degree of heat prevails 
at Ihe tropics than at the equator. 



CLIMATE. 155 

pole, but has a direction due east and west. This ecliptic is, in point of 
fact, the path or the point of direct heat and sunlight over the earth's 
surface. Thus, then, it appears, that when this point has reached its near- 
est approach to either pole, it does not immediately turn back toward the 
other pole, but remains at that nearest distance for a considerable time ; or, 
as it were, lingers there. It has been calculated, that if the space between 
the tropics be imagined to be divided into three equal bands of the earth, 
the point of direct sunlight would be found to linger in each of the two 
outer bands 3i times as long as in the middle band. 

490. " This lingering of the point of direct heat and sunlight at its nearest 
approach to the poles, is a necessary result of that simple and admirable 
provision, by which the earth is made to revolve round the sun, rotating at 
the same time round an axis which has an inclined position, and which pre- 
serves its parallelism. The object of it is obviously to minister to the polar 
regions, in 'their due proportion, light and heat."* 

491. In the northern hemisphere, the countries where the 
greatest heat is experienced — the banks of the Senegal, the Te- 
hama of Arabia, and Mekran in Beloochistan — coincide with 
the tropic of Cancer ; and it has been found that the snow-line 
of the Andes in 17o south latitude is higher than at the equator, 
an evidence of a higher temperature. 

492. (2) The temperature of countries is largely affected by 
the extent of their elevation above the level of the sea. As we as- 
cend in the atmosphere the cold increases, — an effect due to the 
rarefaction of the air, and to the circumstance of being farther 
from the heat reflected from the surface of the earth. We may 
travel several hundred miles from the equator toward the poles, 
along the level surface of the earth, before we become sensible 
of a diminished temperature ; but the moment we begin to increase 
our elevation, a rapid change of temperature is experienced, 
until we arrive at a point where constant frost prevails. 

493. The ratio of the diminution of temperature usually given, 
is 1° for 300 feet of height ; 2° for 595 feet ; 3° for 872 feet ; 4© 

Questions. — 490. What is said of the lingering of the point of direct light and heat at 
the tropics? What is obviously its object? 491, What is said of the countries in the 
northern hemisphere where the greatest heat is experienced ? 492, By what else is the 
temperature of countries largely affected ? What occurs as we ascen.l m ihe atmosphere, 
and why ? State the difference, as affecting climate, between travehng on the surface of 
the earth, from the equator toward the poles, and mcreasing our elevation. 493. What is 
the ratio of the diminution ot temperamre for different heights ? What is remarked of 
Ihe effect of elevation in the temperate zone ' 



* Professor Moseley's " Astro-Theology." 



156 



CLIMATE. 



for 1,124 feet ; 5° for 1,347 feet ; and 6° for 1,539 feet. In the 
temperate zone generally, if one site is a thousand yards higher 
than another adjoining, it will have a climate 12° colder ; and 
the higher the latitude the lower the snow-line becomes, till it 
meets the surface of the earth in the frigid zone. The following 
diagram represents the line of perpetual snow forming the arc 



$^^ 



Heiglit in Feet. 




Surface of tli8 Eaitli. 



40 50 60 70 80 



of an ellipsoid passing over the equator, from pole to pole. Making 
allowance for the fact that the snow-line of the Andes is higher 
at some distance from the equator, the diagram should not ex- 
hibit a continuous curvature, but be corrected as follows : 



^;iSi-— 1 








^ 


^ o 


b 


e 




a> 


05 


M 


,^ 


o "~^ 


s? 


b 

o 


Height in Feet 


o 
o 


o 


o 


o 


o 
o 


^ 


-<o 




o 


o 


= 


o 


o 




1 ^"^-^ 



Sunace of the Eai-tli. 



10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 



494. From this effect of elevation upon temperature, it is obvious that 
the mountainous regions of the torrid zone have great varieties of climate. 
The hot regions, tierras calientes, of Mexico include the country along the 
eastern and western shores under the elevation of tw^o thousand feet, where 
the mean temperature is about 77°, and sugar, indigo, cotton, and bananas 
flourish luxuriantly. Above these are the temperate regions, tierras tem- 
pladas, which lie along the slopes of the mountains at an elevation of from 
2,000 to 6,000 feet. Here the yellow fever, the scourge of the low grounds, 
is unknown ; and the mean heat of the year is from 68° to 70°. The trav- 
eler enjoys a genial air, and encounters the oaks, cypresses, pines, tree- 
ferns, and the cultivated grains of the United States. Still higher are the 
cold regions, tierras frias, which include the table-lands and the mountains 
above 5,000 feet. On the borders of this zone the climate is still pleasant, 
l)ut beyond the elevation of 8,000 feet it becomes severe, and gradually as- 
sumes the character of polar latitudes. 

495. Switzerland, from similar causes, exhibits a variety of climates. In 
the narrow and deep valley of the Valais may be found great extremes of 

Questions,— 494:. "What is obvious from this effect of elevation upon temperature ? De- 
Fcribe the hot regions, tierras caiientes, of Mexico. The temperate regions, tierras tem- 
plitdas The cold regions, tierras frias. 495. Whtit may be found in the valley of the 
Yalais, Switzerlatrt v What are ihe heights to which different kinds of vegetation grow 
there? 



CLIMATE. 157 

climate, — the cold of Iceland and the heat of a Sicilian summer. Vines 
grow to the height of 2,380 feet above the level of the sea ; trees to 6,700 
feet; shrubs to 8,500; a few plants to 10,600, beyond which are a few lich- 
ens; and the vegetation ceases entirely at the height of 11,000 feet, amid 
Arctic cold. 

496. The following is the extreme line of elevation above the level of the 
sea observed here of individual classes of vegetation : 



Feet. 
The silver birch . 5,500 

The larch 6,000 

The fir le sapin . . 6,300 
Pinus cembra . . . 6,600 
Rhododendron... 7,400 



Feet. Feet. 

Maize 2,772 The cherry 4,270 

The oak 3,518 Potato 4,450 

The walnut 3,620 The nut 4,500 

The yew 3,740 The beech 4,800 

Barley 4,180 Mountain maple . 5,100 

497. Etna is divided into three districts, each of which has a climate very 
different from either of the others. They are called La Regione Culta, or 
the fertile region ; La Regione Sylvosa, the woody region ; and La Regione 
J)esei-ta, the barren region. The productions of these districts are as di- 
verse from each other as are those of the three zones of the earth. 

498. The Island of Teneriffe, with its celebrated Peak, presents another 
illustration of the effect of elevation on climate. The Peak, which rises to 
the height of 12,176 feet, has several zones of vegetation, arranged one above 
another, extending through a perpendicular elevation of 11,190 feet, to 
which vegetation ascends in that tropical latitude. The region of Vines 
rises from the level of the sea to a height varying from 1,200 to 2,000 feet. 
In this zone the date-tree flourishes, the sugar-cane, the plantain, the In- 
dian fig, the olive, wheat, and the fruit-trees of Europe. The region of 
Laurels includes the woody part of Teneriffe, in which a hardy species of 
trees, as the oak, the laurel, etc., abound. Next comes the region of Pines, 
filled with trees resembling the Scotch fir. Higher still may be found spe- 
cies of grasses which reach nearly to the line of perpetual snow. 

499. The delightful climate of the valleys of Cashmere, and of portions of 
Hindoostan lying on the declivities of the Himalaya Mountains, is owing to 
the elevations of those regions above the level of the sea. In these districts, 
as well as on the table-land between the eastern and western Ghauts, the 
temperature throughoiit the year is that of perpetual spring. The inhabit- 
ants of Quito, at an elevation of 9,540 feet, experience a genial and almost 
invariable climate, in which vegetation never ceases, while on the one hand, 
they behold the mountain ridges covered with perpetual snow, and at the 
distance of a few leagues, an intense and sickly degree of heat oppresses 
the plains and lower levels. 

Questions.— A96. What is the extreme line above the sea-level reached by certain classes 
of plants? 497. How is Etna divided ? What are the districts called, and what is said of 
their productions V 498. What is said of the zones of vegetation on the Peak of Teneriffe ? 
Describe the region of Vines. Of Laurels. Of Pines. 499. Climate of Cashmere and 
portions of Hindoostan ? Quito ? 



158 CLIMATE, 



LESSON XII 

CLIMATE — [continued). 

500. (3) The nearness to, or remoteness of a country from, 
the sea, is an important element in determining its climate. The 
ocean preserves a much more uniform temperature than the land, 
far lower than its extreme of heat, and higher than its extreme 
cold. The winds that sweep over it have this character to some 
extent impressed upon them, and communicate it to the countries 
over which they range. Hence islands and maritime districts 
have milder climates than inland regions under the same parallel 
of latitude, the currents from the ocean tempering their summer 
heat, and moderating their winter cold. 

501. London, though situated in a higher latitude, enjoys a 
milder winter and cooler summer than Paris. The winters and 
summers of Ireland are much more temperate than those of any 
other country under the same parallel. A gradual increase of 
cold is experienced in proceeding from Western Europe in an 
easterly direction. At Dublin the mean annual temperature is 
49.05, while that of Warsaw, in the same latitude, is 44.15; 
thus it is nearly 5° colder at Warsaw than at Dublin. Again, it 
is 6^o colder at Moscow than at Copenhagen, though they are 
equidistant from the equator. 

502. America has a colder climate than corresponding latitudes in the 
Eastern hemisphere. With reference to this, Humboldt advances the follow- 
ing statement : " The comparative narrowness of this continent, — its elon- 
gation toward the icy poles, — the ocean, whose unbroken surface is swept 
by the trade- winds, — the currents of extremely cold water which flow from 
the Straits of Magellan to Peru, — the numerous chains of mountains abound- 
ing in the sources of rivers, and whose summits, covered with snow, rise far 
above the region of the clouds, — the great number of immense rivers that, 
after innumerabb courses, always tend to the most distant shores, — deserts, 
but not of sand, and conseqxtently less susceptible of being impregnated 
with heat, — impenetrable forests, that spread over the plains of the equator, 

Questions. — 500. "What is the third cause which affects climate ? What is said of the 
ocean ? Climate of islands and maritime districts ? 501. Comparative climate of London 
and Paris? Ireland? What is experienced in proceeding from Western Europe in an 
easterly direction ? How much colder is it at Warsaw than at Dublin ? At Moscow than 
at Copenhagen ? 502. How does the climate of America compare with that of the Eastern 
hemisphere? Give the subetanee of HumboUU's stafem.ent. 



CLIMATE. 159 

abounding in rivers ; and which, in those parts of the country that are the 
farthest distant from mountains and from the ocean, give rise to enormous 
masses of water, which are either attracted by them, or are formed during 
these acts of vegetation : all these causes produce, in the lower parts of 
America, a climate which, from its coolness and humidity, is singularly con- 
trasted with that of Africa. To these causes alone must we ascribe that 
abundant vegetation, so vigorous and so rich in juices, and that thick and 
umbrageous foliage, which constitute the characteristic features of the new 
continent." 

503. (4) The slope of a country, or the aspect it presents to 
the sun's course, has an important influence on its climate. The 
angle at which the sun's rays strike the ground, and consequently 
the power of those rays in heating it, varies with the exposure 
of the soil relatively to that luminary. The irregular surface of 
the earth, — sunk into deep valleys in some parts, and raised into 
table-lands and mountains in others, with slopes at all possible 
angles with the general level, — presents every variety so far as 
the greater or less obliquity of the sun's rays is concerned. 

604. The effect of aspect is, of course, most strikingly seen in regions cov- 
ered with high mountains. " Under a vertical sun, the sides of the Andes 
receive the sun's rays as obliquely as they fall in our latitudes upon the 
earth's level surface, — nay, as obliquely, perhaps, as they fall in summer 
upon the level surface of the snows of Spitzbergen ; "v^hile the Alps en- 
counter on parts of their southern slopes as direct a heat as that which 
burns up the desert of Sahara ; and on their northern they are as much 
hidden from the sun's influence as are the level snows of Lapland. 

505. " In the Alps of the Valais, on the one side you may see the vine in 
luxuriant growth, when the other is thick ribbed with ice. Thus, too, the 
terraces and sloping plains which descend from the vast table-land of Cen- 
tral Asia, where, inclining from its northern limit, they pass into the steppes 
of Siberia, present, under the latitude of Edinburg, a cold intense enough 
to freeze mercury ; while upon the southern terraces of the opposite Hima- 
laj^a slope, flourish, at different elevations, the pineapple, the mango, the 
gigantic cotton-tree, and the saul. This tropical vegetation ascends there 
to an altitude of four or five thousand feet \ mingling itself, and by degrees 
giving way to tFie plants of a temperate region, — elms, willows, roses, and 
violets, destined in their turn, at a yet higher region, to yield to Alpine 
forms of vegetable life.'"* 

Questions.— bOZ. What is the fourth cause which determines the climate of a country ? 
What is said of the irregular surface of the earth? 504. When is ;he effect of aspect most 
strikingly seen? 505. How is the effect of aspect exhibited in the Alps? On the table- 
lands of central Asia. 



* Professor Moseley'a "Astro- Theology." 



160 CLIMATE. 

506. (5) The position and direction of mountain chains. — 
Mountains affect climate in more ways than one. They con- 
dense the vapors of the atmosphere, and thus give rise to those 
violent rains which are so often experienced in the neighborhood 
of lofty ranges. At Bergen, in Xorway, there fall annually 88^ 
inches of water, which is more than at any other city in Europe ; 
this is because the clouds from the Atlantic are driven forward 
by the southwest ^vinds into the fiords, where they are arrested 
by the mountains, and accumulated, and the water (as it were) 
mechanically squeezed out of them. 

507. ^lountains also afford shelter from the winds, while the 
absence of them often expose regions to the chilling blasts of 
the north or the burning winds of the south. One reason why 
the central and southern par^s of European Russia are exposed 
to a greater degree of cold than their latitude would lead us to 
expect, is the absence of any chain of mountains to protect them 
from the full influence of the wmds blowing from the "White Sea 
and Ural ^Mountains. The inhospitable climate of Siberia arises 
from its descent toward the north, exposing it to the winds of 
the Frozen Ocean ; while, at the same time, vast mountain chains 
that cross Central Asia intercept the southern winds, whose ac- 
cess would tend to mitigate the rigor of the atmosphere. 

508. (6) Another cause which affects climate is the nature of 
the soil. One soil acquires heat, keeps its acquired heat much 
longer, or radiates it more readily than another. All the vari- 
eties of soil, — flight and open, vegetable molds, gravelly and 
rockv tracts, stiff, wet clays, and sandy plains, — -have, it can not 
be questioned, their different powers of radiation and absorp- 
tion ; and whether a district be clay or sand, bare or covered 
with vegetation, for a like cause, greatly affects its temperature. 
The differences of surface so observable in various kinds of 
foliage, — ^tbeir darker or lighter colors, their more or less glossy 
leaves, — are all circumstances which affect the radiation of their 
heat with an infinite variation. 

Questions. — 506. What is the fifth cause which affects climate? How do mountains 
cause rain ? Annual fall of rain at Bergen ? How accounted for ? 507. What is another 
way in which mountains influence climaie ? How illustrated in the case of the climate of 
southern Eussia ? From what does the inhospitable climate of Siberia arise ? 50S. What 
is the sixth c .use which aflFects climate ? Different varieties of soil? 



CLIMATE. 161 

509. Thus clayey or marshy grounds lower the temperature, 
and, especially in hot and humid climates, affect the atmosphere 
in a manner pernicious to health. On the other hand, those 
which are light, stony, or calcareous tend to make the atmos- 
phere salubrious. The great cold, and the unwholesome air, 
that prevail in the Russian governments of Astrakan and Oren- 
burg, lying to the north of the Caspian Sea, are attributed partly 
to the saline nature of the soil ; and it is well known that the 
arid tracts of sand in Africa and Arabia conduce not a little to 
the excess of heat under which those countries labor. 

510. (7) The degree of cultivation and improvement at which a 
country has arrived. — The clearing of forests, the draining of 
swamps and marshes, the cultivation of the soil, etc., are among 
the operations of man by which the climate of a country is greatly 
modified and improved. The clearing of a country from trees 
has the effect of raising the mean annual temperature, but at the 
same time greater extremes of heat and cold are introduced. 
Open grounds are always frozen deeper than woodlands, but the 
latter retain the snow and ice of winter to a much later period 
in the spring than the former. In the cleared portions of North 
America, the winters are known to be much less severe now 
than formerly, when woods spread over a greater part of the 
country. There is little doubt that many parts of Europe enjoy 
a milder climate now than they did in the time of the Romans, 
or even at periods much more recent. 

511. (8) The prevalent icinds of a country constitute another 
cause which affects its climate. This is obvious enough from 
what has been said in the lessons on Winds, from which we 
learn that the character of a wind depends upon the region 
whence it comes. In the United States the winds from the north 
are usually noted for their coolness, a property they derive in 
the frozen regions of Hudson and Baffin Bays, while those from 
the south, coming from the Gulf of Mexico, impart a mildness 
throughout the whole country. The comparatively mild climate 

Qnestiovf;.—b\)9. Effect of different kinds of ground on temperature? Illustrate. 510. 
Seventh cause which affects climate? Effect of clearing a country from trees? 511. Eighth 
cause which affects climate? The north winds of the United States? The south winds? 
The comparatively mild climate of the British Isles, to what owing? How is the temper- 
ature affected by certain winds in Yenezuela ? 



162 CLIMATE. 

of the British Isles is owing to the prevalence of westerly winds 
which are warmed by sweeping over the region of the Gulf 
Stream. In Venezuela, the temperature, which is from S?*^ to 
90° in March, rises to 104° or 105°, whenever the wind blows 
from the parched surface of the llanos or great plains 

512. (9) The annual quantity of rain that falls in a country 
considerably affects its climate by imparting a greater or less 
degree of humidity or dampness to the atmosphere. In general, 
more rain falls in islands and on sea-coasts than in inland, dis- 
tricts, among mountains than in level regions, and within the 
tropics, than in the other zones : the great heat which prevails in 
the equatorial regions causes the amount of evaporation to be 
much greater than in higher latitudes, and hence the atmosphere 
becomes loaded with a greater quantity of moisture. 



LESSON XIII. 

CLIMATE — {continued). 

513. In almost all northern latitudes, January and February 
are the coldest months of the year, and July and August the 
warmest. The greatest cold during the day is usually about an 
hour before sunrise. The greatest heat in latitudes between 35° 
and 60° is from two to three o'clock p.m., and from one to two 
o'clock, between the equator and 35°. 

514. The mean temperature of different months, in various 
places, takes a very wide range above and below the mean an- 
nual temperature. An " excessive" climate is where the contrast 
between the winter and summer temperature is very great. 
Such climates are chiefly found in north and eastern Europe, in 
Asia and America. 

515. The climates of the Atlantic region of the United States, 
and of the northern part of China, are among the most '' exces- 

Questions. — 512. Ninth cause which affects climate? Where does the most rain fall? 
513. Which are the coldest months in almost all northern latitudes? Which, the warmest? 
When is Uie greatest cold during the day? When, the greatest heat? 514. What is said 
of the mean temperature of different months in various places? What is an "excessive" 
climate ? Where are '• excessive" climates chiefly found ? 515. What regions are subject 
to the most " excessive*' climates ? What examples are mentioned ? 



CLIMATE 



16; 



sive," the winters and summers strongly contrasting in their tem- 
perature. New York has the summer of Rome, and the winter 
of Copenhagen. At Quebec, grapes sometimes ripen in the open 
air, whereas the winter is that of St. Petersburg, during which 
the snow lies from three to five feet deep for several months. 
At Pekin, in China, the scorchmg heats of summer are greater 
than at Cairo, and the winters as rigorous as at Upsal. 

516. The following table gives the difference in the mean temperature of 
the coldest and warmest months at different places : 



Cumaiia 

Tondicherry . . 

Manilla 

Vera Cruz .... 
Cape Francais 

Havana . .'. I 23 

Funchal 32 

Natchez ' .31 

Cincinnati 39 

Pekin 39 

Phila.lelphia 39 

New York ■ 40 

IJome 41 

Milan 45 

Buda 47 

Paris 4S 

Nantes 47 

Upsal 60 

Quebec : 46 

Dublin j 53 

Edinburg ! 55 

WarsawT ' 52 

St. Petersburg:. .. 59 

North Cape . . 71 



Coldest 
Jlontii. 


Warmest 
Month. 


Difference 


80-1° 


84-4° 


4-30 


761 


91-4 


15-3 


63-0 


86-9 


18-9 


7<i-0 


81-7 


11-7 


77-0 


86-0 


090 


70-0 


838 


13-8 


64-0 


75-6 


11-6 


46 9 


7S-S 


31-9 


29-6 


74-4 


44-8 


24-3 


84-2 


59-4 


29-S 


77-0 


47-2 


25-3 


.80-8 


55-5 


421 


77-0 


.34-9 


33 8 


55 2 


24-4 


27-6 


71-6 


43-9 


35-1 


69-8 


34-7 


39-0 


70-0 


31-0 


242 


61-3 


37-6 


14-0 


73-4 


59-4 


37-6 


60 3 


22-7 


88-3 


59-4 


21-1 


27-1 


70-3 


43-2 


08-6 


65-7 


57-1 


22-1 


46-6 


24-5 



Uninterrupted trade-winds. 
Monsoons. Eadiation of sands. 
Monsoons. 

North winds in winter. 
Uninterrupted trade-winds. 
North winds in winter. 
Insular climate. 
Interior region. 

do. do. 
Eegion of eastern Asia. 
Eastern America coast. 

do. do. do. 

Southern Europe. 
Interior land. 

do. do. 
Nearer the western coast. 

do. do. do. 

North Europe. 
Eastern America coast. 
Insular climate. 

do. do. 
Interior land. 
Northern Europe. 
Climate of c.)asts and islands. 



517. Isothermal lines (signifying lines of equal heat) are those 
drawn over places which have the same, or nearly the same, an- 
nual temperature. These lines do not coincide with the parallels 
for the reason that there are other causes besides solar action, 
which influence climate, as explained in the last two lessons. 
The meteorological map shows, by the use of isothermal lines, 
those regions which have the same, or nearly the same, temper- 
ature. The figures attached to each curve indicate the mean 
annual temperature of the region traversed by it. 

518. In the northern hemisphere, the curve line on the map, indicating 
the mean annual temperature of 80°, crosses Central America about the 
Gulf of Honduras, passes south of St. Domingo, descending across the At- 



Qwe.stiona. — 517. What are isothermal lines? Why do not these lines coincide with the 
parallels? 518. What regions are crossed by the isotherm of 80°? 



164 CLIMATE. 

lantic to the west coast of Africa, which it cuts near Sierra Leone. It rises 
on that continent, and after crossing the Red Sea and Arabia, it returns 
toward the equator, traversing the southern part of Hindoostan, and the 
northern part of the peninsula of Malacca. 

519. The Warmth Equator shows the district of the greatest heat, which 
have temperatures varying from 81° to 88°. It does not coincide with the 
geographical, but lies mostly to the north of that line, attaining its great- 
est distance in eastern Africa, and in the Indian Ocean. 

520. The isothermal line of 70° crosses northern Mexico, and the penin- 
sula of Florida, its course in America being nearly coincident with the 
parallel of 28°. It reaches the coast of Africa above the Canary Islands, 
ascends toward Tunis about latitude 34°, runs through the Mediterranean 
south of Candia, enters Syria north of Beyroot, traverses Asia south of 
the Hindoo- Koosh and Himalaya mountains, and descends in China to the 
tropic. Tliis line marks the north boundary of the warm zone, and is gen- 
erally the southern limit of the fall of snow at the sea-level. 

521. The isothermal line of 50°, central to the temperate zone, passes the 
mouth of the Columbia river, on the west coast of America, latitude 46°, 
descends in the interior, and reaches the shores of the Atlantic near New 
York, latitude 41°. It then rises abruptly to latitude 56° in the north At- 
lantic, descends by Dublin, London, and through midland Europe to the 
mouth of the Danube, latitude 45°, cuts the north of the Black and Caspian 
seas, falls in the interior of Asia, rising on the eastern coast. 

522. The isothermal line of 30°, indicating an average temperature below 
the freezing point, leaves the west coast of America in latitude 61°, rises 
and declines in the interior, falling to latitude 53° on the shores of Labrador. 
It then ascends abruptly to latitude 74° in the Arctic Ocean, and passing 
around the North Cape of Europe, as abruptly descends to latitude 50° in 
the interior of Asia. Ti-^i l.ne marks the southern limit of permanently 
frozen ground, which, in Asia, occurs in a latitude as low as that of London. 

523. The isothermal lines indicating a lower degree of temperature can 
only be traced with certainty through portions of their course. That of 20o 
appears to descend from the mouth of the Mackenzie Biver, latitude 68° to 
latitude 59° on the coast of Labrador. From thence it rises to latitude 77°, 
cutting the south of Spitzbergen, and falls in Asia to latitude 56°. The 
isothermal line of 10° passes to the north of Hudson Bay in America, and 
of Yakutsh in Asia. 

524. The western part of Europe has much greater warmth 

Questions. — 519. What doeg the Warmth Equator show ? On which side of the equator 
does it mostly lie, and where does it attain its greatest distance? 520. Describe the course 
of the isothermal line of 70°. What does this line mark? 521. Describe the course of 
the isothermal line of 50°. 522. The isothermal line of 30°. What does this line mark? 
523. What is said of the isothermal lines indicating a lower degree of temperature ? That 
of 20°? OflQO? 524. What is said of the comparative temperature of western Europe and 
eastern America ? What is the first cause mentioned ? The second ? The third ? 



CLIMATE. 165 

than corresponding batudes in eastern America, as is indicated 
by the convexity of the isothermal lines about the meridian of 
Greenwich. This is due to a variety of causes. 1. The pre- 
vailing winds being from the southwest, come from the equatorial 
districts, and partially bear the heat of the tropics to the shores 
of Europe. 2. The warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which 
sweep across the Atlantic to the neighborhood of Europe, ele- 
vate the temperature of the coasts that are washed by them. 3. 
The Gulf Stream, it is true, runs along the east coast of America 
from Florida to Cape Hatteras, but the current is there very 
narrow, and the prevailing winds carry the hot superincumbent 
winds away from the shore. On the other hand, a sea current 
comes down from the Arctic Ocean to the coasts of Labrador 
and Newfoundland, which contributes to depress the temperature 
by its cold waters, but chiefly by the floating icebergs that de- 
scend with it. 

525. With reference to climate and productions, the globe may 
be divided into the following regions, — the hot, warm, temperate, 
cold, and frigid. 

526. The Hot Regions occupy a zone extending on each side 
of the equator to a few degrees beyond the northern and southern 
tropic. Here abound the finest spices, the sugar-cane, the palm 
and banana tribes. It includes the islands and mainland of 
southern Asia, the middle and northern countries of Africa, and 
the central parts of America. 

527. The Warm Regions extend from the northern limit of 
the sugar-cane to the northern boundary of the olive and fig ; 
and include the southern districts of Europe, part of midland 
and southwestern Asia, and portions of the southern United 
States. The frosts here are not severe in the plains ; snow is 
rare ; and the rivers are seldom frozen over. The winters are 
more distinguished for dampness than cold, resembling the spring 
of the temperate regions. Vegetables on the south of this zone 
grow during seven or eight months of the year, and the trees 
are stripped' of their foliage more than two months. 

Questions. — 525. Into what regions may the globe be divided with reference to climate 
and productions? 526. What are the limits of the Hot Eegions? What abound here? 
What countries d^os it inchide? 527. Where do the Warm Eegions extend? Whatdis- 
tricta do they include? What charactorizi'S these regions? 



166 CLIMATE. 

528. The Temperate Regions reach from the northern region 
of the olive and fig to that of the grape-vine, and have a mean 
temperature varying from 50° on the northern border to 59^ on 
the southern. The transition from winter to summer is here 
gradual, and the four seasons are distinctly marked. Grain, veg- 
etables, and many fine fruits are produced n abundance, with 
excellent pasturage. The northern part of the United States is 
included in this regio-n, with France, Germany, southern Russia, 
Holland, Belgium, England, and Ireland, in Europe. 

529. The Cold Regions include the country between the grape- 
vine and the northern limits of the oak, or midland Russia and 
southern Scandinavia, in Europe, southern Siberia in Asia, and 
the British Provinces in North xlmerica. The summers are 
short, hot, and oppressive, and the winters severe and protracted. 
Nearly six months in the year the temperatur.e of Stockholm and 
St. Petersburg is below the freezing point. 

530. The Frozen Regions extend from the northern boundary 
of the oak to the pole. The birch, the hardiest of trees, gener- 
ally ceases to grow about latitude 70° in Europe, where man is 
compelled to give up the cultivation of grain. Shrubs and veg- 
etation linger on farther north ; grasses and lichens then are only 
to be met with ; and eternal snows and ice succeed. In regions 
north of 59° in Asia, 71° in Europe, and 54° in America, the 
mean annual temperature is below the freezing point. Around 
Hudson Bay and in North Siberia, lakes and standing water of 
no great depth are frozen to the bottom ; the inhabitants remain 
crowded together in small huts; and if the cold air suddenly 
enters a habitation, the vapors fall in a shower of snow. 

531. Observation in high northern latitudes has pretty nearly 
determined the fact that the point of greatest cold is not coinci- 
dent with the pole, but that the lowest temperature is found at 
two points situated at about 78° of latitude, and 95° west longi- 
tude and 130° east. Captain Parry, who wintered at Melville 

Questions. — 528. What are the bounds of the Temperate Eegions ? Their temperature ? 
What is said of the seasons here ? What countries are included in this region ? 529. 
What do the cold regions include? The seasons here? 530. Where do the Frozen Ee- 
gions extend? Give particulars respecting this region. 531. What has observation in 
high northern latitudes nearly determined ? Where are the supposed points of the greatest 
cold? 



CLIMATE. 1^7 

Island, often observed the thermometer in the ship at 50°, and 
at a distance from the ship at 55° below zero, perhaps the low- 
est temperture, upon which entire dependence may be placed, 
that has been remarked. He wintered on the south coast of the 
island in about latitude 74^, and obtained the following results 
of observation': 

The greatest heat at Melville Island, was + 60° Fahr. on the 17th of July. 

The greatest cold at ditto, — 50 '• on the 15th of Feb. 

Mean temp, of warmest month, July -}- 42*41 " 

of coldest month , F eb —32-19 " 

of Winter.— Dec, Jan., Feb. —28-02 " 

of Spring.— Mar., Apr., May — 03-27 " 

of Summer. — June,July,Aug.-f 37-11 " 

of Autumn.— Sept., Oct., Nov. — 00-51 « 

The mean temperature for 12 months ...-{- 01 : 83 '• 



PART IV. 

ORGANIC EXISTENCE. 



LESSON I. 



PLANTS 




HE term organic existence is 
applied to those objects which 
have life, and are possessed of 
parts, or organs. Organized 
bodies are either animals or 
plants. With animals, the 
stomach is the organ of di- 
gestion, the lungs of respira- 
tion, the limbs of motion, etc. 
A plant is also composed of 
parts, as the root, bark, leaves, 
etc., which severally perform 
certain functions necessary to its existence and growth. 

533. Botanical Geography, or the " Geography of Plants," is 
a branch of natural science that treats of the laws which reg- 
ulate the distribution of vegetable life over the surface of the 
earth. Plants occur over the whole globe under the most op- 
posite conditions. They flourish in the bosom of the ocean as 
well as on land, under the extremes of cold and heat, in polar 
and equatorial regions, on the hardest rocks and in the most fer- 
tile valleys, amid the perpetual snow of lofty mountains and in 
springs at the temperature of boiling water, and in deep caverns 
where the sun has never sent a cheering ray. 

534. The life and healthy growth of plants depend upon light, 
heat, and moisture. It is light that gives to plants the beautiful 

Questions.— boi. To what is the term organic existence applied ? What are organized 
bodies? Name some of the organs of animals? of plants? 533. What is Botanical Geog- 
raphy ? Under what opposite conditions do plants flourish ? 534 Upon what does the 
life, etc of plants depend ? What gives the green color to plants ? 



PLANTS. • 169 

green color, the intensity of which increases with the brilliancy 
of the light. " Plants always turn toward the light ; the guiding 
power we know not, but the evidence of some impulsive or at- 
tracting force is strong, and the purpose for which they are con- 
stituted to obey it is proved to be the dependence of vegetable 
existence upon luminous power."* 

'535. Heat is another essential which determines the condition 
of plants, by the amount of it which prevails during the season 
of vegetation. In the cold regions of very high latitudes veg- 
etation scarcely exists, and even in the temperate zones its 
luxuriance is materially diminished by the severe climate of 
winter. The influence of heat on vegetable life is most strikingly 
exhibited on high mountains in the torrid zone, where the growth 
and luxuriance of plants diminishes in proportion to elevation, 
and consequently in proportion to the diminution of heat. 

536. Without moisture there can be no vegetation, and this 
element is supplied to the plant in three different forms : that of 
vapor which the plant absorbs, — that of liquid water by which 
some plants are surrounded, and that of moisture which the plant 
extracts, as nutriment from the earth. The development of plants 
is further dependent upon the chemical qualities of the soil in 
which they live, whether it be composed of pure or mixed earths, 
or of soil rich in clay or vegetable mold. 

537. It belongs to Botany, Vegetable Physiology, and Agri- 
cultural Chemistry to investigate the structure and nature of 
plants, and to examine in detail the treasures of the vegetable 
kingdom. The business of the physical geographer is to notice 
the disposition of the vegetable tribes, and the circumstances 
which seem to regulate their distribution. 

538. Scarcely fourteen hundred species of plants appear to 
have been known by the Greeks and Romans. At the time of 

Questions.—^?,'?). Where is the effect of heat on vegetation most striliingly exhibited! 
636. What is said of moisture, and in what three forms is it supplied to plants ? Upon 
-what else is the development of plants dependent ? 537. What is the business of the phys- 
ical geographer ? 533. IIow many species of plants were known by the Greeks and Eo- 
mans? How many at the time of Linnaeus in 1762? In 1835? How many have been 
coilected at the present time ? Probable number on the earth ? 



* " The Poetry of Science," by Eobert Hunt 
8 



irO PLANTS. 

Linnaeus (1762) the number of known species was 8,800. In 
1835, Lindley gave the number at 86,000. At the present time, 
according to Lyell, there have been collected upward of 100,000 
species ; and when we reflect that the interior of Africa, of Aus- 
tralia, and of the great islands of Oceanica, have not been visited 
by the naturalist, it will not be deemed extravagant to estimate 
the total aggregate of species on the earth at 133,000. 

539. " A species embraces all such individuals as may have originated 
from a common stock. Such individuals bear an essential resemblance to 
each other, as "well as to their common parent, in all their parts. Thus the 
■white clover is a species, embracing thousands of cotemporary individuals, 
scattered over our hills and plains, all of a common descent, and producing 
other individuals of their own kind from their seed."* 

540. The vegetable kingdom consists of two great natural di- 
visions, namely, Pheenogamia, or Flowering Plants, and Crypto- 
gamia, or Flowerless Plants. The Ph^nogamia possess a 
woody structure, have leafy appendages, develop flowers, and 
produce seeds. They have two subdivisions, depending upon 
their manner of growth, called Exogens and Endogens. 

541. The Exogens (from exo^ outside, and genesis^ increase) 
are a class of flowering plants whose stems have bark, wood, 
and pith. The bark is increased by layers deposited within the 
previously formed layers, and the wood by layers or rings placed 
outside of those of the previous year. This class embraces the 
forest trees, as the oak, elm, pine, chestnut, poplar, hazel, willow, 
birch, etc., most of the flowering shrubs and herbs, as the arbu- 
tus, sage, mint ; also the dahlia, artichoke, thistle, lettuce, mari- 
gold, dandelion, daisy, etc. They are also called dy cotyledons , 
from the seed consisting of two lobes. 

542. As a new layer is formed every year, it is easy to determine the age 
of an exogenous tree, by counting the number of layers or rings. In this 
way De CondoUe advances proof of the following ages : 

Questions.— -^Z^ . What is a species? Example. 540. Of what two great natural divi- 
sions does the vegetable kingdom consist? Describe the Pha9nogamia. What two subdi- 
A'isions have the Phsenogamia ? 541. What are the Exogens? How are the bark and 
wood of this subdivision increased ? What does this class embrace ? By what other name 
are they called, and why? 542. How may the age of an exogenous tree be determined ? 
Ages of several species of trees ? 



* Wood's " Class-Book of Botany." 



DISTKIBUTION OF PLANTS. 



171 



Elm 335 years. 

Cypress about 350 

Cheirostemon about 400 

Ivy 450 

Larch 576 

Orange 630 

Olive 700 



Oriental Plane, 720 years and upw'd. 
Cedar of Lebanon about. 800 years. 

Oak 810, 1080, 1500 

Lime..... 1076, lUr 

Yew 1214, 1458, 2588, 2880 " 

Taxodium 4000 to 6000 
Boabab . . 5150 



543. The Endogens (from endon, within, and genesis, to in- 
crease) are those which have their stems increasing from within, 
and present no appearance of wood, pith, and bark. They com- 
prehend the numerous grasses, and the most important of all veg- 
etable tribes, viz., the valuable pasture and all the grain-yielding 
plants, wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, rice, sugar-cane, etc., with 
lilies and the palm family. They are also called monocotyle- 
dons, from having only one seed-lobe. 

544. The Cryptogamia, or flowerless plants, include mosses, 
lichens, fungi, ferns, sea-w^eeds, etc. 

545. Station indicates the peculiar nature of the locality where 
each species is accustomed to grow, and has reference to climate, 
soil, humidity, light, elevation above the sea, etc. ; by habitation 
is meant a general indication of the country where a plant grows 
wild. Thus the station of a plant may be a salt-marsh, a hill- 
side, the bed of the sea, or a stagnant pool. Its habitation may 
be Europe, North America, or New Holland, between the tropics. 



LESSON II 



DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 



546. In considering the distribution of the vegetable species 
it is important to observe the distinction between indigenous and 
exotic plants. The former are the native productions of a coun- 
try: the latter are those which have been introduced from abroad. 
The number of exotic plants is comparatively small. They con- 
sist, for the most part, of those species which are eminently use- 

Questlons. — 543. What are the Endogens ? What do they comprehend ? By what other 
name are Ihey called, and why? 544. What do the Cryptogamia include? 545. What 
does station indicate? Habitation? Illustrate? 546. What are indigenous plants? Exotic 
plants ? Of what species do the exotics, for the most part, consist ? 



172 DISTKIBTTIOX OF PLANTS. 

fal to man, in furnishing him food, the materials for clothing, etc., 
besides a variety of flowering plants and shrubs. 

547. The indigenous class comprehends the great proportion 
of the vegetable species which adorn the surface of the globe. 
It includes many useful plants which can not be successfully 
transplanted to foreign climes ; but by far the greater number are 
those which are not so especially serviceable to man, and hence 
ihere is no inducement to transfer them from the countries in 
which they are naturally found. 

548. Of the indigenous plants, it has been ascertained that 
different regions are inhabited by distinct species. This fact is 
etrikinffly exhibited by an examination of Xew Holland, where 
they are found to be, almost without exception, distinct from 
those known in other parts of the world. Countries situated be- 
tween the same parallels of latitude differ essentially in their 
species of vegetation. Out of 2,891 species of flowering plants 
observed by a naturalist in the United States, there were only 
385 which are found in northern or temperate Europe. Hum- 
boldt and Bonpland, in all their travels in equinoctial America, 
found only twenty-four species common to America and any other 
part of the world. 

549. It is a remarkable fact, that in the more widely separated 
parts of the eastern continent, notwithstanding the existence of 
an uninterrupted land-communication, the diversity of species is 
almost as striking as between countries separated by wide oceans. 
Thus there is found one assemblage of species in China, another 
in the countries bordering the Black Sea and the Caspian, a third 
in those surrounding the ^Mediterranean, a fomrth in the great 
platforms of Siberia and Tartary, and so forth. 

550. By the term botanical province is meant a district having a 
peculiar species of vegetation. Twenty great botanical provinces 
have been established, although many of these contain a variety 
of species which are common to several others. Professor Mar- 

QveMioTtK — 547. VThat docs the indigenous class comprehend? What does it include? 
J>43. What has been asccr:cined rospecting the indigenous plants? What is said of the 
T getation of diffiTcnt countries situated between the same parallels of latitude? lilusirate, 
549. What is said of the diversity of species in the eastern continent ? Illustrate. £50. 
What is meant by the term botanical province? How manv botanical provinces have 
bei n established ? 




fi'n.w ejl, acocrrOmg to^ict, ofCimgrnss.-m, meTearlBSS, Sy J.JI. Coltorh SzCorm. tJia Oust-lcs Office- oFtheDi^a-ict Laurr crfilie Vriiced States ■faT-6u^S'n,t'hemT>is 



DISTRIBTJTION OF PLANTS. 173 

tius, of Munich, has divided the vegetation of the globe into 51 
provinces, namely, 5 in Europe, 11 in Africa, 13 in Asia, 3 in 
New Holland, 4 in North and 8 in South America, besides Cen- 
tral America, the Antilles, the Antarctic Lands, New Zealand, 
Yan Diemen's Land, New Guinea, and Polynesia. 

551. " The first travelers were persuaded that they should find, in distant 
regions, the plants of their own country, and they took a pleasure in giving 
them the same names. It was some time before this illusion was dissipated ; 
but so fully sensible did botanists at last become of the extreme smallness 
of the number of phaenogamous plants common to dififerent continents, that 
the ancient Floras fell into disrepute. All grew diffident of the pretended 
identification ; and we now find that every naturalist is inclined to examine 
each supposed exception with scrupulous severity. If they admit the fact, 
they begin to speculate on the mode whereby the seeds may have been trans- 
ported from one country to the other, or inquire on which of two continents 
the plant was indigenous, assuming that a species, like an individual, can 
not have two birthplaces."* 

552. Plants are diffused in a variety of ways. The principal 
of the inanimate agents provided by nature for scattering the 
seeds of plants over the globe, are the movements of the atmo- 
sphere and of the ocean, and the constant flow of water from the 
mountains to the sea. A great number of seeds are furnished 
with downy and feathery appendages, enabling them, when ripe, 
to float in the air, and to be wafted easily to great distances by 
the most gentle breeze. As winds often prevail for days and 
weeks, or even months together, in the same direction, such 
seeds may be conveyed to a great distance from the parent plant. 
Even the heavier grains may be borne through considerable spaces 
by the hurricanes and whirlwinds which prevail in some regions. 
The germs of many plants, as mosses, fungi, and lichens, con- 
sist of a flne powder, the particles of which are scarcely visible 
to the naked eye, and there is no difficulty in accounting for 
their being dispersed throughout the atmosphere, and carried to 
any point of the globe where there is a station fitted for them. 

553. Rivers aid in the distribution of vegetation by bringing 
down to the valleys the seeds which may accidentally fall into 

Questions.— ^o2. "What arc the principal inanimate agents employed in scattering the 
seeds of plants ? Explain the agency of winds. 553. Of rivers. The Gulf Stream. 



Lyell's " Principles of Geology. 



174: DISTKIBUTION OF PLANTS. 

them. Thus the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by 
seeds which grew in the interior of Germany, and the western 
shores of the Atlantic by seeds that generated in the interior of 
America. The Gulf Stream is known to convey to the western 
coasts of Europe the fruits and seeds of plants which are indig- 
enous to America and the West Indies, in such a state that they 
might have vegetated had the climate and soil been favorable. 

554. Seeds are also distributed by the agency of animals. 
Some kinds adhere, by means of prickles, hooks, and hairs, with 
which they are provided, to the coats of animals, to which they 
remain attached for weeks, or even months, and are borne along 
into every region whither quadrupeds may migrate. 

555. The diffusion of the vegetable species is also promoted 
by migratory birds, which every year alternate in millions be- 
tween different countries, and convey to and fro the seeds of 
plants preserved in their gizzards, or attached to their feathers. 
When we reflect that these causes have acted incessantly for 
thousands of years, we can not doubt the immense effect of their 
joint influence in distributing the forms of vegetable life upon 
the surface of the globe. 

556. But man has been a voluntary agent in effecting the 
same object, with reference to those plants which are serviceable 
for food and clothing, or as articles of luxury and ornament, or 
for building purposes. 

557. " The date-palm has been introduced from Africa into the south 
of Spain. The grape-vine, now so common in western Europe, has been 
naturalized from western Asia. The coflfee-bush, native to the highlands 
of Ethiopia, was taken thence to the scene of its present cultivation, the 
southern part of the Arabian peninsula ; and the culture of the tea-plant, 
indigenous to China, has recently been attempted with success in the south 
of France. Rice, known in the southern regions of Asia from the remotest 
antiquity; the valuable bread-fruit tree, indigenous in the same district, 
and in the Polynesian islands; and the more important cereals, wheat, 
barley, oats, and rye, have all been transferred from the old world to the 
new, since the discovery of the latter by Europeans." 

658. " In return, the old world has received from the new, maize or In- 
dian corn, and the potato, the cultivation of which extends from Lapland to 

Questions.— 56i. How distributed by animals? 555. By birds? 556. What kinds of 
plants have been distributed by the voluntary agency of man ? 



FOOD PLANTS, • 175 

the extremity of Africa. Our principal fruit trees appear to have traveled 
into Europe and Great Britain from Syria ; the damson plum, with the dam- 
asl£ rose, as their names import, from the neighborhood of Damascus ; the 
cherry from Pontus ; the walnut and the peach from Persia ; the apricot 
from Armenia ; the citron, lemon, and orange from the warmer parts of 
Asia."* 



LESSON III. 

FOOD PLANTS. 



559. Man, in almost every country, has selected annual plants 
for food ; that is, such plants as complete their whole vegetative 
processes within the course of a few months. These, for the most 
part, possess a subterraneous and usually tuberous stem, which 
sends up shoots above the soil ; after some time, flowers appear, 
and afterward fruit. During the remainder of the year, the plants 
sleep, as it were, beneath a protecting coverlet of earth, and are 
thus beyond the influence of excessive heat or cold. By the 
cultivation of these plants, man has rendered himself independent 
of the destroying action of the dry season in semi-tropical re- 
gions, and of the killing influence of the winter cold in higher 
latitudes. It is remarkable that there are only three arborescent 
vegetables in the whole world which can be included among the 
true food-plants, namely, the bread-fruit, the cocoa-nut, and the 
date, and these have become objects of culture, and furnish in 
certain regions the chief food of large bodies of men. 

560. The chief food-plants are as follows : In the Old World 
the species which prevail are the grains, or cereal grasses, namely, 
barley, oats, rye, wheat, rice, millet, sorghum, and the olive. The 
trees are the date-palm, banana, cocoa-nut, bread-fruit, batatas, 
and the pandanus. In the New World the species which have 
their origin are maize, potato, manioc, and arrow-root. The food- 
plants cultivated to a certain extent in both continents are sugar^ 

Questions.— 559. What plants has man selected for his food ? What is said of these 
plants ? Which are (he only three arborescent vegetables included among the true food- 
plants ? 560. What species of food-plants prevail in the Old World? The trees? "What 
species have their origin in the New World ? What food-plants are cultlvaied. tc a oertaia 
extent in both continents ? 



* Eev. Thomas Milner. 



176 FOOD PLANTS. 

coffee, tea, vine, cocoa, pepper, cinnamon^ cloves, nutmegs, and 
cassia. 

561. The regions over which these plants are distributed may- 
be seen by inspection of Map 4. They range from the poles 
toward the equator in the following order. Barley, which has 
the widest distribution of all the cerealia, is cultivated from the 
extreme limits of culture in Lapland, to the heights immediately 
beneath the equator, but it is only in a narrow zone of the north- 
ern hemisphere that it is reared as the sole bread-grain ; beside 
it appear Rye, which is the peculiar bread-grain in Norway, 
Sweden, Finland, and the northern part of Russia ; and Oats, 
which are extensively cultivated throughout northern Europe. 
These grains are also cultivated m North America, though chiefly 
confined to British America and the northern part o^ the United 
States. 

562. Wheat is the prevailing cultivated plant in Great Britain, 
Germany, France, and a wide range toward the east, including 
the whole of the region of the Caspian ; in the basin of the Medi- 
terranean, and throughout North America, it is associated with 
maize. Its northern limit in America is unknown, the country 
being uninhabited ; but at Cumberland House^ in the very mid- 
dle of the continent, one of the stations of the Hudson Bay 
Company, in 54° north latitude, there are fields of wheat, barley, 
and Indian corn. Wheat thrives luxuriantly in Chile and Rio de 
la Plata, and at elevations of 8,500 and 10,000 feet above the 
sea. It even produces grain on the banks of Lake Titicaca in 
the Peru-Bolivian Andes at the absolute height of 12,795 feet, 
in sheltered situations. Buckwheat is a plant of tolerably exten- 
sive culture in the northern temperate zone. It is a native of 
Asia, from whence it was brought into Europe in the fifteenth 
century. 

563. Maize or Indian Corn is much cultivated in Europe and 
America south of the 47th parallel of latitude. In the United 
States great attention is paid to the culture of this grain, of which 
there were produced, in 1850, over 592 million bushels. Rice 

Questio7is.—561. What is the region of barley ? Rye ? Oats ? 562. Wheat ? Its northern 
limit in America ? At what elevation does it grow in South America? Buckwheat? 563. 
Maize or Indian corn ? Rice ? What does its cultivation require ? , 



FOOD PLANTS. 177 

has been cultivated in the southern regions of Asia from the 
earliest ages. It constitutes the staple food of the inhabitants 
of the Indian peninsulas, China, Japan, and the East Indian Isl- 
ands. Rice is the food of a greater number of human beings 
than any other grain. It requires excessive moisture, and a tem- 
perature of 73° at least ; consequently its cultivation is limited 
to countries between the equator and the 45th parallel. 

564. The Olive in the Old World embraces two zones or 
bands, north and south of the equator, about 9° in width, from 
latitude 35° to latitude 44o. The climate of the New World, 
which is subject to the extremes of heat and cold, is not favor- 
able to the cultivation of this plant. The Date-Palm yields one 
of the most nourishing fruits in existence. It grows sponta- 
neously on the southern slopes of the Atlas chain, on the banks 
of the Nile, and in the Canary Islands ; its range extends to 
Palestine and Hindoostan, and it has been introduced into the 
south of Spain. It is said that each tree yields annually from 
150 to 260 pounds of fruit. 

565. The Date-Palm is a member of the palm family, which 
grows chiefly in the tropics. From their noble and stately ap- 
pearance, palms* have been called by Linnaeus " the princes of the 
vegetable kingdom." Wine, oil, flax, flour, sugar, and salt, says 
Humboldt, are the produce of this tribe ; to which Von Martins 
adds thread, utensils, weapons, food, and habitations. The cul- 
tivation of the date-palm is an object of high importance in the 
countries of the East. In the interior of Barbary, in Egypt, 
and in the more dry districts of Syria, and in Arabia, it is al- 
most the sole object of culture. It is a slow-growing tree, and 
it has been estimated that the age of one sixty feet high can not 
be less than 300 years. It is so abundant, and so unmixed with 
any thing else that can be considered as a tree in the country 
between the States of Barbary and the Desert, that this region 
is designated the Land of Dates (Belad-el-Jareed). 

566. The Banana or Plantain, which yields a great amount 
of nutritious substance, is a native of the southern portion of 

Questions.— 554:. The olive ? Date-Palm ? 565. What is said of the palm family of 
plants? What do they produce? Wliat is remarked respecting the cultivation of the 
tlate-palm? 566. The bannna or plantain ? Its productiveness ? 



178 FOOD PLANTS. 

the Asiatic continent, but has been transplanted into the Indian 
Archipelago and Africa, and has also found its way into the trop- 
ical parts of the New World. The fruits weigh, altogether, 
about 70 or 80 pounds, and the same space which will bear 1,000 
pounds of potatoes, brings forth, in a much shorter time, 44,000 
pounds of bananas ; and if we take account of the nutritious 
matter which this fruit contains, a surface which, sown with 
wheat, feeds one man, when planted with bananas affords sus- 
tenance for twenty-five. 

567. The Cocoa-nut Pahn also belongs to inter-tropical climes, 
flourishing especially on islands and near the sea-shores. It is 
cultivated nowhere so extensively as in the islands of Ceylon, 
Sumatra, and Java. This tree grows to the average height of 
eighty feet. The nuts hang in clusters of r, dozen each on the 
top of the tree. The fruit consists externally of strong, tough, 
stringy filaments resembling coarse oakum, which is formed into 
coir, and extensively used in the East for making cordage. In- 
closed within this fibrous mass is the shell, of great firmness, 
and used for many domestic purposes. While the nut is green, 
the whole hollow of the shell is filled with an agreeable, sweet- 
ish, refreshing liquor. W^hen the nut is gathered, a formation of 
albumen takes place upon the inside of the shell, producing that 
white, firm, pleasant-tasted, but rather indigestible substance, 
which is called the kernel of the nut. A tree generally furnishes 
about 100 nuts. 

568. The Bread-fruit Tree is distributed generally among the 
Friendly, the Society, and the Caroline Islands. The tree is 
beautiful, as well as useful, and rises to the height of about forty 
feet ; when full grown it is from a foot to fifteen inches in diam- 
eter. The fruit is green, heart-shaped, about nine inches long, 
and equaling a large melon in size. The nuts, when roasted, 
are said to be as excellent as the best chestnuts, but it is princi- 
pally for the fleshy receptacle or pulp that it is valued. When 
roasted it is soft, tender, and white, resembling the crumb of a 
loaf, but it must be eaten new or it becomes hard. Others com- 
pare the flavor to that of a roasted potato. Such is the abundance 



QuesUons.—^&l. The cocoa-nut palm ? 568. The bread-fruit tree ? Describe the fruit. 



FOOD PLANTS. 179 

of the fruit, that two or three trees will suffice for a man's yearly- 
supply. 

569. The Potato is a natiA^e of Chile, and was first introduced 
into Britain from Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586. Of 
all the vegetable productions especially adapted for the suste- 
nance of man it has the widest range, extending according to 
Humboldt, from the northern extremity of Africa, to Labrador, 
Iceland, and Lapland. In tropical regions an elevation of 4,000 
feet is necessary for its growth. 

570. The Cassava or Manioc is a shrub, a native of Brazil. 
The fleshy roots of this plant yield a nutritious substance, from 
which we obtain our tapioca. This latter article is a kind of 
starch, and is capable of being made into excellent puddings ; it 
is a very wholesome food for children, and for persons whose di- 
gestive organs are feeble. A considerable quantity of this prep- 
aration is exported annually from Brazil to the United States. 
Arrow Root, which forms a pleasant and useful aliment for chil- 
dren and invalids, is much cultivated both for domestic use and 
for exportation in the West India Islands, Surinam, and in some 
parts of Hindoostan. It is so named from the property it is said 
to possess of being an antidote to the poisoned arrows of the 
Indians. 

571. Sugar- Cane. The range of this plant maybe said to ex- 
tend to all the regions of the torrid zone. In countries where 
the mean temperature is not less than 64°, it extends to latitude 
30° on each side of the equator in the New World, and to about 
latitude 35° or 36° in the Old. The native country of the sugar- 
cane is China, from whence it was conveyed to Arabia, Nubia, 
Egypt, and Ethiopia, where it became extensively cultivated. 
Early in the fifteenth century it first appeared in Europe. Shortly 
after the discovery of the New World by Columbus, the plant 
was conveyed to Hayti and Brazil, from which latter country it 
gradually spread through the Islands of the West Indies and the 
southern part of the United States. 

572. Coffee. This bush or tree is a native of the Ethiopian 

^M««#ion«.— 569. The potato? 570. The cassava or manioc ? Arrowroot? 571. Sugar 
oane ? Of what country is it a native, and into what regions was it successively Introduced ? 
562. CoflFee? 



180 FOOD-PLANTS. 

highlands of Africa, whence it has been introduced into Arabia, 
the East and West Indian Islands, Surinam, Cayenne, and Bra- 
zil. The tree grows upright with a single stem, covered with a 
light-brown bark, to the height of from eight to twelve feet, and 
has long, undivided, slender, horizontal branches, which cross 
each other. These are furnished with evergreen, opposite leaves, 
not unlike those of the bay tree. The flowers grow in clusters 
at the root of the leaves, and close to the branches. They are 
of a pure white, and of an agreeable odor. The fruit, which is 
a berry, grows in clusters along the branches, under the axils 
of the leaves. Each berry contains two seeds. 

573. Tea consists of the dried leaves of the tea tree, which is 
indigenous to China and Japan. It was first imported by the 
Dutch in 1610, and was brought into England in 1666. "The 
tea country" in China is situated on the eastern side between 
the 30th and 33d parallel of north latitude. A species of holly, 
called Paraguay Tea, grows spontaneously in the forests of Par- 
aguay, and yields a beverage called Mate in Brazil. 

574. The Vine comes to perfection in Europe as far north^as 
latitude 50° or 52°, but its profitable culture does not extend 
much beyond latitude 48°, — the best wines being produced be- 
tween the 30° and 45° north latitude. Its range in America is 
much more limited, a difference of 10° occurring between its 
limits in the Old and in the New World. The Fig is the fruit 
of a small tree with broad leaves. It is produced in India, Tur- 
key, Greece, France, Spain, Italy, and northern Africa ; but the 
best figs come from Turkey. The Cocoa, or Chocolate-tree, grows 
spontaneously in several of the countries of tropical America ; 
its fruit resembles a cucumber, the seeds of which furnish a sub- 
stance from which chocolate is prepared. 

^wesWcms.— 573. Tea? Paraguay tea? B74. The vine? Fig? The cocoa or chocolate- 
tree ? 



ANIMALS. 181 

LESSON IV. 

ANIMALS. 

575. The animal kingdom is supposed to comprehend about 
250,000 distinct species, of which, however, an immense pro- 
portion belong to the insect class. Its members are arranged in 
four grand divisions, namely : 1. Vertebrated animals. 2. Mol- 
luscous animals. 3. Articulated animals 4. Radiated animals. 

576. Vertebrated animals are those which have a vertebral 
column, or back-bone. This class is subdivided into four orders : 
1. Mammalia, or animals which suckle their young. 2. Birds. 
3. Reptiles. 4. Fishes. 

577. Mammalia, or mammiferous quadrupeds, stand at the head of the 
animal creation, and are distributed into eight groups ; though they differ 
vastly in appearance and habit, they nevertheless correspond in one partic- 
ular, that of suckling their young. The groups, Tvith some of their types, 
are as follows : 1 Quadrumana (four-handed), — monkeys, apes. 2. Car- 
nivora (flesh -eaters), — cat, hyena, lion, bear, civet, glutton, mole. 3. 
Marsupialia (pouched), — opossum, kangaroo, wombat. 4. Rodentia (gnaw- 
ers), — beaver, porcupine, squirrel. 5. Edentata (toothless), sloth, arma- 
dillo, ornithorynchus. 6. Pachydermata (thick-skinned), — elephant, rhi- 
noceros, hippopotamus, zebra, tapir, horse, ass, boar, and badger. 7. Runii- 
nantia (chewing the cud), — camel, ox, goat, sheep, deer, antelope, giraffe. 
8. Cetacea (belonging to whales), — whale, dolphin, norwhal, seal, porpoise. 

678. Birds are distributed into the following six divisions : 1. Rapaces — 
Birds of prey ; 2. Scansores — Climbers ; 3. Oscines — Songsters ; 4. Gal- 
linacecs — Hen-like birds {gallina, a hen) ; 5. Grallatores — Waders ; 6. 
JVatatores — Swimmers. The known number of species is upward of 6,000. 

579. Keptiles are distributed into four divisions, as follows : 1. Chelonia 
(Tortoises) ; 2. Sauria (Lizards) ; 3. Ophidia (Serpents) ; 4. Batrachia 
(Frogs) 

580. Molluscous, or soft-bodied animals, are those which have 
no bones, but whose muscles are attached to a soft skin, which 
is inclosed, with few exceptions, in a hard case or shell. In this 

Questions.— 5X5. How many distinct species Is the animal kingdom supposed to com- 
prehend? Into what four grand divisions are its members arranged ? 576. What are the 
vertebrated animals? How is this class subdivided ? 577. What is said of the mammalia? 
Into what eight groups are they divided ? 578. Into what six divisions are birds distrib- 
uted? 579. Into what four are reptiles? 5S0. What are molluscous or soft-bodied ani- 
mals ? What six orders does this class include ? 



182 DISTEIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 

class there are six orders: 1. Includes those which have their 
heads furnished with feet, as the cuttle-fish, nautilus, etc. 2. 
Those of wing-like feet, as the clio, the chief food of the whale. 
3. Those creeping on the stomach, — the slug, snail, limpet, and 
whelk. 4. Headless, as the oyster, muscle. 5. Arm-like feet, 
as bivalve shells. 6. Thread-like feet, as the barnacle. 

581. Articulated animals are those in which the body is divi- 
ded into joints or rings, sometimes hard and sometimes soft, which 
supply the place of a skeleton ; this class consists of four orders : 

1. Anclides, or ringed worms, as worms, leeches, and centipedes. 

2. Crustacea, animals covered with shells, as crabs, lobsters, 
shrimps, and locusts. 3. Spiders, scorpions. 4. Insects of va- 
rious families, as flies, bees, wasps, and butterflies. 

582. Radiated animals are so called because they have their 
organs arranged like rays proceeding from a center : they are 
also called zoophytes or animal plants, from their resemblance to 
some families of vegetable forms. This class contains five or- 
ders, which include star-Jishes, sea-urchins, sea-nettles, corals^ 
madrapores, infusoria, and microscopic animals. 



LESSON V. 

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 



583. Animals exhibit a wonderful diversity in their organiza- 
tions, from the gigantic forms of the elephant and whale to the 
atom so minute that the strongest magnifying-glass is required 
to detect its individual existence. By the use of the micro- 
scope it is ascertained that every leaf of the forest, flower of the 
garden, and drop of water, teems with myriads of living beings, 
utterly inappreciable by the unaided senses of man, yet perfectly 
organized according to their grade. The variety of form, size, 
strength, and uses, found among animals, with their adaptation to 
every existing climate and soil, are evidences of the power, wis- 

Qtiestions.—^S'i. What are articulated animals ? Of how many, and what, orders does 
this class consist? 582. Why are radiated animals so called ? By what other names are 
they also called ? What animals are included in this class ? 5S3. What is said of the di- 
versity in the organization of animals? 




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DISTKIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 183 

• dom, and goodness of the Creator ; for, while some beasts of 
prey with poisonous reptiles, and mischievous insects, are only 
scourges to the human race, the greater number of the animal 
tribes are subject to the control of man, and contribute essentially 
to his subsistence and comfort. 

584. It is in the regions within the tropics that we find ani- 
mal life, like vegetable existence, most intensely developed, 
whether we consider the number of individual, or of species, or 
the qualities of size and strength. The coral-forming tribes, 
which belong to the lowest or radiated order, are chiefly confined 
to those parts of the ocean which lie in the torrid zone. (For 
an account of the structures of these animals, see Lesson V., 
Part I.) Of the molluscous class, marine shell-fish, of unim- 
portant size and appearance in cold latitudes, become larger and 
finer on approaching the equatorial seas. Among articulated an- 
imals, the arachnidse, spiders and scorpions, attain an enormous 
size in the torrid zone ; the butterflies are magnificent ; and the 
insect class, in general, occur in such numbers, as frequently to 
become formidable, laying waste the earth, and driving nations 
before them. The termites, or white ants of India and Africa, 
erect pyramids of clay to the height of ten or twelve feet, sufli- 
ciently compact to sustain the weight of several men, — far more 
wonderful works, in proportion to the size of the builders, than 
the pyramids of Egypt. 

585. No part of the world is so remarkable for the profusion 
of insect life as the regions of the Orinoco, and other great riv- 
ers of tropical America. Humboldt informs us that at no season 
of the year, at no hour of the day or night, can rest be found 
there, and that whole districts in the upper Orinoco are deserted 
on account of these insects. Different species follow one another 
with such precision, that the time of day or night may be known 
accurately from their humming noise, and from the difl!*erent sen- 
sations of pain which the different poisons produce. The only 
respite is the interval of a few minutes between the departure 
of one gang and the arrival of their successors, for the species 

Questi<-'ns-—6S4:. Where is animal life most intensely developed ? What is said of the 
coral-formino: tribes ? Of the molluscous class ? Of the articulated animals ? 5S5. Profusion 
<if insect life in tropical countries? 



184: DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 

do not mix. On some parts of the Orinoco the air is one dense 
cloud of poisonous insects to the height of 20 feet. 

586. Among vertebrated animals, the reptiles are especially 
numerous and formidable in this zone, — as the crocodile of Africa, 
the gaival of India, and the alligator of America, — and the serpent 
tribe, some distinguished by their prodigious length and power, 
the python of India, and the boa of America, and others of smaller 
proportions, armed with a poison of a peculiar deadliness, the 
hooded snake of Asia, the cerastes of Africa, and the rattlesnake 
of America. The birds here are of the most beautiful forms, 
splendid colors, and largest dimensions, — as the graceful birds 
of Paradise, inhabiting New Guinea ; the parrot tribe of Brazil, 
the ostrich of Africa, and the cassowary of Australia. The mam- 
miferous quadrupeds are likewise found, in tropical regions, in 
the greatest variety, including the most colossal, the elephant, 
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and giraffe ; and the most sanguinary, 
the lion, tiger, leopard, panther, ounce, hyena, puma, and jaguar. 

587. The animal tribes of the temperate and cold regions are, 
with a few exceptions, distinguished for their positive utility to 
man. Advancing from the equator toward the pole, they are 
found, as a general rule, gradually to diminish in number, magni- 
tude, and ferocity. The insects of temperate regions are much 
smaller in size than their tropical fellows, and except in the hot- 
test parts of the year, and in marshy localities, they produce lit- 
tle inconvenience. The great voracious reptiles totally disa,ppear, 
and the venomous serpents are few and upon a lesser scale. The 
birds of two families, swimmers and waders, chiefly subsisting 
upon fish, increase in numbers with the distance from the equa- 
tor ; the songsters likewise have more melodious notes in tem- 
perate than in tropical countries ; but all the varieties are marked 
with greater simplicity of coloring. 

588. In the temperate and cold regions the quadrupeds of the 
carnivorous class are chiefly represented by the lynx, wild-cat, 

Questions.— ^'iQ. "What is said of the vertebrated animals of tropical regions? Exam- 
ples? Examples of large mammiferous quadrupeds? 587. For what are the animal 
tribes of the temperate and cold regions distinguished? The insects of these regions? 
The reptiles? The birds? 588. What animals in the temperate and cold regions repre- 
sent the carnivorous class ? The rodents? The ruminants ? Thecetacea? What animals 
are restricted to the coldest climates ? What to the hottest ? 



DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 185 

weasel, fox, wolf, and bear ; the rodents, or gnawing animals, 
by the porcupine, squirrel, rat, mouse, hare, and beaver ; the ru- 
minants, which chew the cud, by various species of the ox, sheep, 
goat, and deer tribes ; and the cetacea, inhabitants of the ocean, 
by the porpoise, seal, walrus, norwhal, and whale. The herbiv- 
orous reindeer, elk, and musk ox ; and the carnivorous Arctic 
fox and white polar bear, are restricted to the coldest climates, 
as the herbivorous rhinoceros and elephant and carnivorous tiger 
and hyena are to the hottest. 

589. The animals of temperate and cold districts are generally 
remarkable for a tendency to be gregarious or social. Wolves 
often hunt in packs ; beavers form a colony ; the wild goats and 
mountain sheep, with the domestic breeds, associate in flocks ; 
the bison, or American buffalo, is rarely seen solitary on the 
plains of the Missouri, but has membership with a vast herd ; 
and the reindeer, with other species of the tribe, have eminently 
the same characteristics. The gregarious tendency of some 
kinds of fish is observed in the immense shoals of herrings and 
mackerel that visit our coasts, and the salmon and shad that flock 
into our rivers, at certain seasons of the year. Many kinds of 
birds are remarkably gregarious, of which the wild pigeon of 
America is an example. 

590. Animals are adapted to different climates and diverse 
physical circumstances, by clothing, differing in quantity and 
quality. The quadrupeds of the torrid zone are furnished only 
with a coat of short and thin hair ; but with increasing latitudes, 
soft and abundant fleeces become common ; while, in still colder 
regions, the beaver, sable, ermine, and bear are supplied with the 
thickest furs. The aquatic tribes of birds which swim in the 
cold waters of high latitudes, are supplied with a compact coat 
of oily feathers, which abound most upon the breast, as it, in 
swimming, first meets and cleaves the cold fluid. The whale 
and walrus, which permanently dwell in the cold ocean, derive 
protection from the chilling waters by the enormous amount ot 
blubber, a bad conductor, which surrounds their bodies. 



Questions.— 5S9. For what are the animals of the temperate and cold regions remark- 
able ? Illustrata 590. What is said of the adaptation of animals to different climates ? 
Illustrate. 



186 ZOOLOGICAL EEGIONS. 

LESSON VI. 

ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 

591. The peculiarities which distinguish the animals of the 
warm, the temperate, and the cold parts of the earth were briefly 
explained in the preceding lesson. It must not be inferred, how- 
ever, that the same species are found in the same latitudes, or 
in countries which possess the same temperature. Different re- 
gions are characterized by distinct species of animals as well as 
vegetables. It was observed by BufTon that " when America 
was discovered, its indigenous quadrupeds were all dissimilar to 
those previously known in the Old World. The elephant, the rhi- 
noceros, th'C hippopotamus, the camelopard, the camel, the drom- 
edary, the buffalo (Asiatic), the horse, the ass, the lion, the tiger, 
the apes, the baboons, and a number of other mammalia, were no- 
where to be met with on the new continent ; while in the old, 
tho American species of the same great class were nowhere to 
be seen — the tapir, the lama, the peccary, the jaguar, the couguar, 
the agouti, the paca, the coati, and the sloth." 

592. The earth has been divided by naturalists into ten zoo- 
logical regions. First, the European region, which comprehends, 
besides Europe, the borders of the Mediterranean, and even the 
north of Africa, and extends into Asia, beyond the Ural mountains 
and the Caspian. The bear, the fox, the hare, the rabbit, and 
the deer are among the animals which belong to this district. 

NoTB. — It is important to bear in mind that the same name is often ap- 
plied, in different countries, to animals of different species. Thus in North 
America are found bears, foxes, rabbits, and deer ; but they are of a different 
species from those of Europe. The buffaloes which roam in vast herds over 
the prairies of America are very unlike those of India ; and the species of 
India and America differ greatly from the Cape buffalo of Southern Africa. 

593. Secondly. The African region is inhabited by many an- 
imals not found elsewhere. The hippopotamus, for example, the 

Questions.— 591. What must not be inferred respecting the species of different countries 
in the same latitudes? What was observed by BufTon? 502. Into how many zoological 
regions has the e^rlh been divided ? What countries does the European region compre- 
hend, and what animals belong to it ? 59-3. What animals are exclusively African ? Which 
of the African animals are common to Asia ? How does the elephant of Africa differ from 
that of India? 



ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 187 

giraffe, the chimpanzee, the blue-faced baboon, and the four-finger- 
ed monkeys, are exclusively African. A few of the species in- 
habiting the northern confines of this continent, such as the 
dromedary, lion, and jackall, are common to Asia. The elephant 
of Africa is smaller, has a rounder head, and larger ears than 
the Indian one, and has only three instead of four nails on each 
hind foot. In like manner, not one of the three African species 
of rhinoceros agrees with one of the three Indian kinds. 

594. Thirdly. The Southern region of Africa, where that 
continent extends into the temperate zone, constitutes another 
separate zoological province. This region is cut off from the 
countries of milder climate in the northern hemisphere by the in- 
tervening torrid zone. Here may be found peculiar species of the 
rhinoceros, the hog, and the hyrax, among the thick-skinned 
races ; and among the ruminating, the Cape buffalo, and a variety 
of remarkable antelopes, as the springbok, -the oryx, the gnou, 
and several others . 

595. Fourthly. The island of Madagascar, though separated 
from Africa by a channel only 300 miles wide, forms another 
province, all the species, except one, being peculiar. This dis- 
trict is distinguished by the number of monkeys of the Lemur 
family which inhabit it. 

596. Fifthly. Another of the great nations of terrestrial mam- 
malia is that of /wc?ea, containing a great variety of peculiar forms, 
such as the sloth-bear, the musk-deer, the nylghau, the gibbon 
or long-armed ape, and many others. Sixthly, A portion of the 
Indian Archipelago, embracing the large islands of Java, Suma- 
tra, and Borneo. A few of the species inhabiting these islands 
are common to the continent of India, but most of them are 
distinct. 

597. Seventhly. The islands of Celebes, Amboina, and New 
Guinea constitute another region, in which are found many mar- 
supial quadrupeds. Of this region Lyell remarks : " As we pro- 

Question.". — 594. "What \s said of the southern res:ion of Africa? What animals are 
peculiar here? 695. What is said of the island of Madagascar? 596. What forms are 
pecuhar to India? What la said of the species inhabiting the Indian archipelago? 597. 
Of the islands of Celebes, Amboina, and New Guinea? What does LyeV remark of this 
region ? 



I'^S ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 

ceed in a southwesterly direction, from Celebes to Amboina and 
thence to New Guinea, we find the Indian types diminishing in 
number, and the Australian {i. e., marsupial forms) increasing. 
Thus in New Guinea seven species of pouched quadrupeds have 
been detected, and among them two singular tree-kangaroos ; yet 
only one species of the whole seven, viz., the flymg opossum, is 
common to the Indian archipelago and the mainland of Australia." 

598. Eighthly. When Australia was discovered, its land quad- 
rupeds belonged almost exclusively to the marsupial or pouched 
tribe, such as the kangaroos, wombats, flying opossums, kangaroo- 
rats, and others. From recent mvestigations it has been ascer- 
tained that there are no less than 170 species of marsupial 
quadrupeds, and of the whole number all but thirty-two are ex- 
clusively restricted to Australia. 

599. Ninthly. North America constitutes another vast zoo- 
logical province, inhabited by species of animals very rarely 
identical with those of Europe or Asia. The influence of cli- 
mate in limiting the range of animals is here conspicuously dis- 
played. The animals of the state of New York are of quite a 
difl:'erent species from those of the arctic regions, and also from 
those of South Carolina and Georgia. Among the quadrupeds 
which inhabitant the northern part of the continent are the musk- 
ox, polar-bear, and reindeer, besides numerous species of fur- 
bearing animals. The grizzly bear, the largest and most ferocious 
of its kind, inhabits the range of the Rocky Mountains ; and the 
American buffalo roams in herds of thousands over the prairies 
which extend west from the head waters of the Mississippi. 

600. Tenthly. South America is the most distinct, with the 
exception of Australia, of all the provinces into which the mam- 
malia can be classed geographically. The monkey tribe, which 
are very numerous in the forests of Brazil, difl:'er widely from 
those in the Old World ; many of them having prehensile tails, 
and all being noted for their widely separated nostrils. The 
sloths and armadilloes, the true blood-sucking bats or vampyres, 
and many other animals, are peculiar to South America. 

Queaions.-59S. What is said of the land quadrupeds inhabiting Australia on its dis- 
covery ? 599. What is said of the animals of North America ? Of the influence of climate 
in limiting the range of animals? Name some of the principal quadrupeds of this divi- 
sion. 600. What is said of South America? Illustrate. 



MAN. 189 

LESSON VII. 

MAN. 

j601. The number of the human race is variously estimated 
from 600 to 1,000 millions. The impossibility of stating it with 
any degree of precision arises from the fact, that in but few coun- 
tries is any enumeration of the inhabitants ever made ; while there 
are vast and populous regions which have scarcely been visited 
by civilized man. The best opinion appears to be that 900 mil- 
lions is a close approximation to the real number. 

602. Mankind, pre-eminently distinguished from the lower ani- 
mals by the high endowments of reason, conscience, and speech, 
also differ from them in consisting only of a single species. 
They are geographically diffused through almost every climate, 
from the hottest to the most frigid. Under the scorching rays 
of a tropical sun, upon the banks of the Senegal, the human 
body supports a heat which causes alcohol to boil ; and in the 
polar regions of northeast Asia it resists a cold which freezes 
quicksilver. 

603. Few lands have been discovered destitute of a native hu- 
man population. Iceland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Madeira, 
the Azores, St. Helena, the Falkland Isles, and South Shetlands, 
some groups in the Pacific Ocean, as the Galapagos Isles, and a 
large number of small islets, with all the lands within the Ant- 
arctic circle, were uninhabited when first made known to Euro- 
pean nations, but have, in several instances, since been colonized. 
The range of man extends from the 75th parallel of north lati- 
tude to the 55th of south latitude. The most northern dwellers 
are the Esquimaux, on the shores of Baffin's Bay ; the most 
southern are the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego. 

604. On man's capability of accommodating himself to a great diversity 
of circumstances, Dr. Paley remarks : " The human animal is the only one 
which is naked, and the only one. which can clothe itself. This is one of the 

Questions.- 601. How is the number of the human race variously estimated? Most 
probable number ■? 602. How are mankind distinguished from the lower animals? What 
is said of their wide diffusion ? 603. What regions were uninhabited when first made 
known to Europeans ? Between what parallels does the range of man extend ? 604, 605. 
Give the substance of Dr. Paley's remarks. 



190 RACES OF MEN. 

properties "w^hich renders him an animal of all climates and of all seasons. 
He can adapt the warmth or lightness of his covering to the temperature 
of his habitation. Had he been born -with a fleece upon his back, although 
he might have been comforted by its warmth in high latitudes, it would 
have oppressed him by its weight and heat as the species spread toward 
the equator. 

605. " Within the tropics, where a vegetable diet is found to be most 
grateful and conducive to health, nature supplies, in the greatest abund- 
ance, the most valuable vegetable productions. In the temperate regions, 
animal food is more or less abundant ; and the various kinds of grain, roots, 
and fruit, afford plentiful and wholesome nutriment. As we approach the 
polar regions, grains and fruit gradually disappear, and animal food be- 
comes more and more exclusively used, until we reach the Samoieds and 
Esquimaux, who are unacquainted with bread." 



LESSON Till. 

RACES OF MEN. 

606. We are informed in the Sacred Scriptures that it pleased 
the Almighty Creator to make of one blood all the nations of the 
earth, and that all mankind are the offspring of common parents. 
Though differing greatly in form, statm-e, features, and complex- 
ion, the members of the human race are found to possess no 
specific differences, — the hideous Esquimaux, the refined and 
intellectual Caucasian, the thick-lipped Negro, and the fair, blue- 
eyed Scandinavian being mere varieties of the same species. 

607. Classifications of mankind have been based upon the dif- 
ferences that exist in respect of the color of the skin, hair, and 
eyes, and of the form of the skull. Taking the color of the hair 
as the leading character, there are three principal varieties : 
First. The Melanic* or black class, which includes all individ- 
uals or mces which have black hair. Second. The Xanthous,^ 
or fair class, comprising those who have brown, auburn, flaxen, 
or red hair. Third. The Alhino,\ or white variety, comprising 
those whose hair is pure white, and who have also red eyes 

Questions. — 606. What do the Sacred Scriptures iuforin us ? 607. Upon what have clas- 
sifications been based ? What are the three varieties distingaished by the color of the hair ? 



* MzLAxic. from the Greek melan, black, t XA>-THors. from the Greek xanthos, yellow. 
* ALBi2fo, from the La"in ali'Tis, white. 



EACES OF MEN. 



191 




708. Taking the shape aftJie skull as the basis of a classifica- 
tion, mankind are divided into five grand classes, or races — the 
Caucasian, MongoIiLiTi, Ethiopic, American, and Malay. 

609. In the Caucasian o> >~;n^ ' — '^j'xp 
race, the head is common- 
ly of the most symmetrical 
shape, almost round ; the 
forehead of moderate ex- 
tent ; the cheek-bones ra- 
ther narrow, without any 
projection ; the face straight 
and oval with the features 
tolerably distinct ; the nose 
narrow, and slightly arch- 
ed ; the mouth small, with 
the lips a little turned out, 
especially the lower one ; and the chin full and rounded. 

610. The most perfect examples of this variety are found in 
the regions of western Asia, bordering on Europe, which skirt 
the southern foot of the Caucasus mountains, from whence the 
class derives its name, and which is near what is supposed to 
be the parent spot of the human race. Here are the Circassians 
and Georgians, among whom are found the most exquisite models 
of female beauty. 

611. The Caucasian race comprises the ancient and modern 
inhabitants of Europe, except the Laplanders and Finns, the 
Turks, and the Magyars of Hungary. It comprises also the in- 
habitants of western Asia, as far as the river Ganges, the Afri- 
cans who live on the shores of the Mediterranean, the Egyptians 
and Abyssinians, with those Europeans who colonized America, 
and other parts of the world. 

612. In the Mongolian race the hair is coarse, straight, and 
black, the eyes rise in an oblique line from the nose to the tem- 
ples, the arches of the eyebrows are scarcely to be perceived. 



Questions. — 608. Into ■what classes are mankind divided, taking the shape of the skull 
as the basis of a classification ? 609. Describe the Caucasian race. 610. Where are the most 
perfect examples of this variety found? 611. What people belong to this race? 612. 
Describe the !MongoUan race. 



192 



RACES OF MEN. 







^' 


I i 




^ 5 ^ 






^'-N 


a= ^ 






^ .'/ 


P CO 



EACES OF MEN. 



193 




and the face is broad and flat, with the parts imperfectly distin- 
guished. The complexion is generally of a tawny or olive color, 
which is described as in- 
termediate between that of 
wheat and of dried orange 
peel, varying from a tawny 
white to a swarthy or dusky 
yellow. 

613. This division em- 
braces the tribes that occu- 
py the central, east, north, 
and southeast parts of Asia ; 
the people of China and 

Japan, of Tibet, Bootan, ^^^^W^^ /'i' // ^m"^^^.^^-^r^ 
and Indo-China, the Finns, Laplanders, and Hungarians of Eu- 
rope, and the Esquimaux on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 
A portion of this family is distinguished for a considerable de- 
gree of culture, especially the Chinese and Japanese, but owing 
to their exclusive social system, which has separated them from 
the rest of mankind, they have made but little progress for ages. 

614. The Ethiopic race have black eyes, ^ 

black woolly hair, flat noses, thick lips, 

and a projecting upper jaw. 

head is retreating, and the head 

less globular than that of the 

European. The best examples 

of this race are the negroes 

south of the Sahara, in Upper 

and Lower Guinea, Soudan, 

and Nubia. The natives of 

Senegambia and the KafTres of 

the southeastern part of Africa 

resemble others of this race in 

their jet-black color, and some 

of their features, but they are taller, more slender, and better 

proportioned than the rest. 




Question^.— 613. What people arc comprised in this division '. 
opic race. Where are the best examples found ? 



614. Describe the Ethi- 



194 



EACES OF MEX. 



615. The nations of this race are widely dispersed ; they oc- 
cupy all Africa south of the Great Desert and Abyssinia, Aus- 
tralia, the greater part of Borneo, and several other islands in 
the Indian Archipelago. To this race belong als the negroes in 
America, who were originally brought from Africa, and who have 
multiplied in the New World to a vast extent. 

616. The American race are distinguish- 
ed by a copper-colored complexion, long, 
coarse, coal-black hair (which is never 
crisped like that of the African, or curled, 
as that of the white sometimes is), prom- 
inent cheek-bones, broad 
face, and a scantiness of 
beard. Their senses of 
sight, hearing, and smell 
are remarkably acute. In 
war and the chase they 
are indefatigable, but they 
are averse to regular and 
mechanical labor. They '^?fn*^^?#^ 
are cold and phlegmatic in temperament, and manifest an extra- 
ordinary insensibilit}* to bodily pain. 

617. The native American tribes and nations, excepting the 
Esquimaux, belong to this class. The Indian tribes of North 
America are fast disappearing before the spread of the white 
man, being now confined principally to the unsettled regions west 
of the Mississippi. Aoiong the most warlike of these tribes are 
the Sioux and Camanches. The Indians of South America are 
in a most abject condition, indolent, and destitute of that nerve 
and spirit which is known to distinguish their brethren of the 
north. 

618. In the Malay class the top of the head is slightly nar- 
rowed, the face is wider than that of the negro ; the features 
are generally more prominent ; the hair is black ; the color of 
the skin is tawny, but sometimes approaching to that of ma- 

Quesiions.— 615. What is said of their wide dispersion ? 616. Describe the American 
race. 617. What tribes and nations belong to this race? 618. Describe the Malay race. 
What tribes does this race include ? 




KACES OF MEN. 



195 




hogany. The division 
embraces tlie principal 
tribes of the Indian Archi- 
pelago, and all the island- 
ers of the Pacific, ex- 
cepting those which be- 
long to the Ethiopic va- 
riety. 

619. " The difeusion of 
mankind over the globe has 
transpired in the course of y~~ 
ages Tinder the influence of *' 
various causes. The pressure 

of population in one district outstripping the means of subsistence, the love 
of enterprise, the spirit of acquisition, social disturbances, and foreign vio- 
lence, have contributed to scatter the human family far from the common 
center where the race originated. Endowed with intelligence to devise 
means of surmounting natural barriers — mountains, deserts, rivers, lakes, 
and the ocean, — there is no difficulty in accounting for the geographical 
range of man. The contiguity of the mainland of northeastern Asia to that 
of northwestern America, with the nearly-connected chains of the Japan, 
Kurile. and Aleutian isles intermediate, point to the New "World aa having 
received its original population from the Old in that direction. In modern 
times, adverse winds have driven Japanese junks across from one continent 
to the other : and, probably, more frequently than we are apt to imagine, 
crews have been compelled to expatriation by the tempest, surviving its perils, 
and colonizing distant isles and archipelagoes." — Rev. Thomas Milner. 




STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 



'M, -hi I,, III 

Jlrui.nh. M^.-Lt-.i- 
Wrunund 
nv7tev 

SiMt/zlTui 

JfL'land 



3ilU. 000 


4,500.000 


•-.-7 tl56 


35. 800. two 


r,.-,ii luni 


.10.000.000 


u. :;-.=, 


4:350.000 


SdO. ooo 


1. OOO. OOO 


Z.800. 000 


6.000.000 


.o.ss. 


IS.OOOKOO 


-.426 


;ij.:: ,'iiO 


30. la 


2. 6ZO. 000 


SI . 874 


8.175.000 






•ylfle-TearjaSShv.- 



Canada. 
\ Ciipe Colony 
Central ^nLeTi.ccL 
Chxli 
China 
Cuba 
. TJervmarlc : Ex^iLLshvt 

a-flcela>id. & ya^-o elf I 

Uciuzdor 
B-aiict- 



.&Co. in, fhe CiaTcj,- Office ofrfiaDi'.i 



y.50. OOO 


1.470.000 


i-tJ.ooo 


■200.000 


W6.000 


1.9O0.000 


no. OOO 


eon. OOO 


1.300.000 


360.000.000 


4Z.OOO 


ISO. OOO 


Z1.856 


2.f3Z.000 


S15.000 


600. OOO 


16. 000 


Z. OOO. 000 


■ZOa 736 


35.400.00a 



EXPRESS 1 

1 \ l^ri:e,r 

Boliiuui 
India '^.i ../„..«,«, 
277 II Kizh. i:kyylorvi. 

n iTlMicLhsyanciGcvn^, 

Siam, 

ISd II Italy in^bu^bin^ . 

Saj-dznii 

J 



Ce>yloTV/. 

-A 



^ 



N°VI 










'"^'"^l^v's-k 



^A^.aUei,^ 



TkestBft 



;, , . w- 's /,„ „ ,„„, ,Ki*?r^ Chin 



\%iV'^»'^^'' NORTH 

M>n,r 



.^X««7ui2^^ jn I X B 1 A JS ^■'--■-^ "^ ^ ^ p '^ 



C E AJsr 




.itrarititLS 
'Sorur'boja- :.. . - 

..■0^'''C E A N 



^ Laid 




GUISB SQUARE MILES THE 2».'' THE POPULATION— 

-<7j-e. 55.00o\lTO I .ra,Tria.ica 

iO\ eSlSOaWz || Japan 

>» 24« W<7|235 |l ^ravtt 

J jyiii- Ifrana/ia. 
\ JXar-H-av 



MH*B1T»NTS TO A SQUARE. : 



00 h4V. OOO. OO'J^. 217 



5. OOO. 000\ 31 



?o\ 4.OO0.00O\ 19 y Tersii 
W 5. OOO. 000 ' 30 I Fei-U. 



\Z60.t 

i SO. I 

\TZ6.1 

spo.i 
■400.1 

13,2.' 

\soo.i 

485.1 



•6 \Z3 OUO.OOO 201 



FhiUp-print 

.Pt77-t7l<ju7 



377.500 \ 59 jj 
\50.OO0.O0oh3Z 
j 6.000.000^120 
I 1.000.000 I 1 
; 8.000.000 I 10 
1 100.000 \ 4 
\ 1.16B.O00 ; 9 
\ 8.000.000 '■■ 16 
I 1.350.O0O I 3 

z 500. 000 : 

: 3 400.000 ' 92 
90 



L 107.894 

\z. 000.000 

j 18Z.Z70 



no. 240 3. 



Fnissia^ 

Spain. 
Sxcrruitra. 
Swetleti 

Syi'itz.er-land. 14. OOO 

j TtU-kei- Zurapea.n ZIO.OOO 

cbjLsive of OregoTvi}!. S33. 61S 
& Calif ornia. J: 
Venezttelcc 403.000 



16.113,000 15o\ 



12.287. 
Z.500. 



000 67 1 
000 . I 
000 18 I 
000 150 i 
000 37 I 



17.10O.I 
1. 50.. 



APPENDIX 



CHIEF PRODUCTIONS OF THE EARTH, AND THE COUNTRIES 
WHERE THEY ARE PRODUCED. 

Almonds. Syria, Tripoli, Barbary, Spain, Portugal. 

Aloes Socotra, Arabia, Barbadoes, South Africa. 

Allspice Jamaica. 

Amethysts Brazil, Siberia, Ceylon. 

Arrow Root South America, East and West Indies, South Sea Islands. 

Barley Between latitude 692° and 45° Eastern Hemisphere, British 

America, and Australia. 
Bread Fruit Polynesia, East Indies. 

Cassia East and West Indies. 

Chestnuts Spain, Italy, Corsica, Turkey. 

Cinnamon Ceylon, Cochin China. 

Citron Madeira, Polynesia. 

Cloves Molucca Islands. 

Coal Britain, Belgium, United States, Australia. 

Cochineal Mexico, West India Islands. 

Cocoa West Indies, South America. 

Cocoa Nuts Ceylon, Maldiye Islands, Siam, Brazil, Bengal, Polynesia, 

Africa. 

Coffee Arabia, Java, West Indies, Brazil, Mauritius. 

Copper Britain, Chile, Sweden, Siberia, Persia, Japan. 

Cork France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Barbary. 

Cotton Grows naturally in Asia, Africa, and America; it is culti- 
vated in the United States and some parts of Europe. 

Currants Ionian Islands and Greece. 

Dates . Egypt, Barbary, Arabia, Persia. 

Diamonds Brazil, Borneo, India. 

Ebony Mauritius, Madagascar, Ceylon. 

Emerald Peru. 

Figs Turkey, Greece, France, Spain, Italy, North Africa. 

Flax Russia, Egypt, Ireland, Netherlands, New South Wales. 

Furs British and Russian America, Russia, United States. 



19S APPENDIX. 

Gamboge Siam, Cambodia. 

^^^•^ California, Australia, India, Eussia, Africa, Hungary, 

Saxony, Equador. 

^^"'P I^^ssia, Italy, Pliilippine Islands, Brazil, Britain, Egypt, 

North America. 

Iiidigo East and West Indies, Guinea. 

Ipecacuhana . . . Brazil, South America. 

^^^ Most countries, more particularly Britain and Sweden. 

Ivory Africa, East Indies. 

I^ead Britain, United States, Germany, Spain. 

^^^^^ Sy^ia, Persia, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Azores, West 

Indies. 

Mace East and West Indies. 

Mahogany West Indies, Central America. 

Maize, or In- | America, from Canada to La Plata, South Europe, Central 

dian Corn . ) Africa, Australia. 
Maple Sugar... Canada, United States. 

Marble Italy, Greece, Egypt, Siberia, Britain, France, Flanders. 

Mercury Spain, Austria, California, Peru, China. 

^^llet Germany, Poland, India, Africa. 

Molasses West Indies, Mauritius, Louisiana. 

Morocco Levant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders. 

Mulberry and ) 

Silk Worms 1 ^^^^^ Europe, South Asia. 

Nutmeg Moluccas, Sumatra, Penang, Borneo. 

^^^^ C^_^efly grown in latitudes north of Paris, though cultivated 

in Bengal as low as the 25th degree. 

^^^^® Syria, Greece, Africa, Spain, Italy, Brazil, Ionian Islands. 

Opal Hungary, East Indies. 

*^^^^S®^ The Azores, Spain, Portugal, China, Italy, Malta, Polynesia, 

West Indies. 

Palm Oil Western Africa, Fernando Po, Brazil, Hindoostan. 

I*epper East and West India Islands, French Guayana. 

Pine Apple Mexico, West Indies, Hindoostan, Polynesia. 

Plantain, or ) Tropical America (especially in Mexico), Polynesia, East 

Banana I Indies. 

Platina Spain, Asiatic Pwussia, South America. 

Pomegranate. ..Persia, South Europe, Tropical Asia, West Indies. 
Prunes South France. 

Raisins Smyrna, Valencia, Malaga, Italy. 

I'^ice India, China, West Indies, United States, Italy, Africa. 

Ruby Ava, South America, Siberia, Egypt. 

Rye The Bread-corn of Germany and Russia. 



APPENDIX. 199 

Sago East Indies. 

Sapphire Ava, Bohemia, Saxony, France. 

Silver Mexico, Peru, Hungary, Saxony, Asiatic Kussia. 

Sponge Found upon the rocks of the Mediterranean and Red Sea. 

Sugar Cane Tropical America, East and West Indies, Sicily, Canary 

Islands, Polynesia, Africa, Brazil, Louisiana. 

Sugar from ) „ -.^ , . ^^ -r. . ^ . 

E t "R t \ ^^^^^®' Belgium, Germany, Prussia, Russia. 

Tamarinds East and West Indies, Arabia, Egypt, Cuba, Brazil. 

Tapioca South America, West Indies. 

Tea China, Japan, Assam. 

Tin Cornwall, Devon, Galicia, Erz-gebirge Mountains in Saxony, 

Bohemia, Malay, China, Island of Banca in East Indies. 
Tobacco Tropical America, United States, Turkey, Asia, Prussia. 

France, Australia. 

Topaz South America, India, Egypt, Siberia, Mexico. 

Turquoise Nishapore in Persia. 

Vine South Europe, Canary Islands, Africa, North America to 

latitude 46°, Brazil. 

Wheat We are in total ignorance where this important grain was 

first cultivated ; some suppose in Northern Africa. It is 
raised in almost every part of the temperate zones. Lit- 
tle is grown beyond latitude 58° in Europe, but on the 
Alps it ripens to the height of 3,500 feet above the level 
of the sea. 

Wines Port. — Province of Upper Douro, in Portugal. Sherry. — 

Xeres, near Cadiz, in Spain. Claret. — Bordeaux, in 
France. Champagne. — From a province in France of the 
same name. Burgundy. — Ditto. Madeira. — From the 
Madeira Islands. Malmsey. — Ditto. Teneriffe. — ^From 
the island of Teneriffe. Marsala. — Sicily. Cape. — 
From South Africa. 

Yams Africa, South America, Polynesia, Australia." 



EXPORTS OF COUNTRIES. 

EUROPE. 

Russia Timber, deals, tallow, corn, hemp, flax, furs, linseed, 

hides, leather, pitch, tar, wax, feathers, pearl-ashes. 
Sweden and Nor- \ Timber, deals, iron, pitch, tar, turpentine, resin, oak- 
way i bark, juniper -berries, and fish. 

Germany Wheat in large quantities from Dantzic; hemp, flax, 

wool, bark, amber, Rhenish wines, hops, toys, etc. 



200 



APPENDIX, 



Denmark Hogs, rape-seed, fish, and feathers. 

Holland and Bel- ) Butter, cheese, spirits, flower roots, madder, hops, lace 

gi^^ ) and linen, clocks, toys, etc. 

^'^^^^^'•-' Wines, hrandj, fruits, silks and gloves, perfumery 

trinkets, and fancy articles. ' 

^P^^^ Wine, fruits, oliTe oil, cork, wool. 

Portugal Wine, fruits, cork. 

-^^'^^^ ^a^ and manufactured silks, fruits, olive oil, straw- 
plait, cheese, maccaroni, vermicelli, sulphur, pumice 
stone, marble, paper rags. 

Greece Eaw silk, dried fruits. 

^^I'^ey Leather, raw silks, figs. 

ASIA. 

Hindoostan Silk, sugar, coffee, pepper, indigo, rice, lac-dye, salt- 

peter, precious stones. 

Birman Empire Teak timber, rice, indigo, gums, drugs, palm sugar, 

cotton goods, silk, varnish. 

^^^^^ Tea, silk, cotton goods, porcelain, lacquered ware, 

gums, paper, drugs. 

*^^P^^ ^il^s and cotton goods, drugs, spices, varnish, porce- 
lain, rice, cedar. 

■^®^^^^ Sil'^s, carpets, cotton goods, shawls, stuffs, sugar, rice, 

' . d"ed fruits, leather, drugs, tobacco. 

^^'^^^^^ o--.-Coflee, aloes, gums, myrrh, frankincense, perfumes, 

drugs. 

Turkey in Asia Coftee, carpets, silks, fruits, drugs, opium. 

^1 '^ena Furs and minerals. 

Kamtchatka Furs and dried fish. 

Asiatic Islands Cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, ginger, sago, cam- 
phor. 

AFRICA. 

Mauritius Paim oil, teak timber, aloes, dye-woods, ostrich feathers, 

ivory, gold, sugar. 

^o^occo Leather, goat-skins, gums, fruits. 

Algiers and Tripoli .. Ostrich feathers, dates, wax, wool. 

■^Sypt Cotton, indigo, drugs, fruits, rice. 

Madeira Islands Wine, fruits. " 

Canary Islands Wine, fruits, silks, barilla. 

NORTH AMERICA. 

^a^a^^^ Timber, corn, pot and pearl-ashes, furs. 

Newfoundland Cod-fish. 

Nova Scotia Timber, dried fish, plaster of Paris. 

Hudson's Bay and ) 
Columbia Eiver F"^^^" 



APPENDIX. 201 

United States : 

Northern States ..Timber, fish, beef, pork, pot and pearl-ashes. 

Middle States Wheat, flour ; and, from Maryland, tobacco. 

Southern States . . Cotton, tobacco, rice. 

California Gold. 

Mexico Silver and cochineal. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Caraccas Cocoa, coffee, indigo, tobacco. 

Guayana Sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, tobacco, indigo, cayenne 

pepper. 
Brazil Cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, dye-woods ; drugs from 

the northern provinces ; gold and diamonds, from 

the middle ; and wheat, hides, and tallow, from the 

southern. 

Buenos Ayres Gold and silver, hides, beef, and tallow 

Peru Silver and gold. 

Chile Silver, gold, and copper, from the northern provinces ; 

wheat and hemp, from the southern. 
West Indies Sugar, coffee, rum, molasses, cotton, pimento, ginger, 

logwood, mahogany, cocoa, cochineal, cigars. 



TRADE ROUTES. 



The navigation of the ocean constitutes an important branch of industry, 
in which a greater or less number of people of all civilized countries are 
engaged. The most wealthy and powerful nations are those which have the 
most extended foreign commerce ; as Great Britain, France, the United 
States, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. Commerce has always 
been a fruitful source of individual and national prosperity. 

In former times, maritime pursuits were very slowly conducted. This 
was owing to the imperfect construction of vessels (which were built more 
with reference to strength than qualities of fast sailing), and to the pre- 
vailing ignorance of the winds and currents of the ocean, and hoAV the 
mariner might best avail himself of them in steering his vessel from one 
part of the world to another. 

The winds and currents of the ocean have formed subjects of the most 
careful study and research, the results of which have been of the greatest 
utility to all engaged in navigating the sea. No seaman is qualified to steer 
a ship who does not know where prevailing winds and currents are to be 
met with, and how to turn them to the best advantage in prosecuting his 
voyage. 

On this subject Captain Basil Hall remarks, — " It is one of the chief points 

9* 



202 APPENDIX. 

of a seaman's duty to know where to find a fair wind, and where to fall in 
with a favorable current. If we take a globe and trace on it the shortest 
route by sea to India, and then fancy that such must be the best course to 
follow, we shall be very much mistaken. And yet this is very much what 
our ancestors actually did, till time and repeated trials, and multitudinous 
failures, gradually taught them where to seek for winds, and how to profit 
by them when found." 

Map 6 exhibits the tracks usually taken by ships proceeding from New 
York across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The outward and 
homeward tracks, are distinguished by arrows. 

Route from New York to Sant Francisco. — The route marked on 
the map shows the course taken by vessels which have made the quickest 
passages between these ports. The pupil will notice that it is not the short- 
est as regards distance. Between New York and the point where it crosses 
the equator (on or near the 30th meridian), and also between Cape Horn 
and San Francisco, it diverges very considerably from a direct line. 

To understand this route, and others marked on the map, it is necessary 
for the learner to bear in mind the direction of the prevailing winds as ex- 
plained in Lesson IV. , Part III. From the parallel of about 30° north and 
south, nearly to the equator, there are two zones of perpetual winds, namely : 
the zone of northeast trade- winds on this side, and of southeast trade-winds 
on that. Now, a vessel sailing from New York to Cape Horn is necessarily 
obliged to pass through these zones. Before striking the northeasterly 
trades, she must make a good deal of easting, that is, proceed to the east ; 
for if this is not done they would, perhaps, carry the vessel too close to the 
Windward Islands and the northern coast of South America, so that she 
would find it very difficult to double Cape St. Roque. (See Diagram of the 
Trade- winds, page 132.) 

After crossing the equator the route extends through the South Atlantic, 
at no great distance from the eastern coast of South America, passing in- 
side the Falkland Islands. The most difficult part of the route is that which 
extends from the 50th parallel in the South Atlantic to the same parallel 
in the Pacific. In this part of the voyage is performed the labor of doub- 
ling Cape Horn, a very troublesome operation in consequence of the contin- 
uous cold westerly winds which sailors always find there. The best months 
for doubling the Horn are our winter and summer, excepting July. October 
appears to be the most unpropitious month for the passage 

After reaching the 50th parallel, the California vessel stands far out into 
the Pacific at a great distance from the coast. This is done to get the 
southeast trades in their full force, for, it is to be remembered, these winds 
are considerably impeded by the continent, and are the strongest and stead-' 
iest at a distance from shore. On passing the region of calms, near the 
equator, the zone of the northeast trades is met with, and in crossing this 
belt, the track, instead of leading directly to San Francisco, continues on 
still in a northwest direction until the vessel, in about the 35th parallel 



APPENDIX. 2^^ 



north latitude, has got beyond the influence of these trades : then easting is 
made and the port reached.* • , -, ^-u 

Returning from San Francisco, . vessel pursues ^«°77^*'ly f;^^""*^ 
between tlie meridians of 120o and 125° west longitude, to about the 60th 
parlHel south latitude, where westerly winds are met which rapidly bear 
her pa t Cape Horn into the South Atlantic. Here her course is rather 
sWand ir/egular until Cape St. Ko,ue is --t" J e latter poin 
she enters the strong current which sweeps westwardly from ^^-^^fj^ 
Guinea, and flows along the northern coast of South "-(^^^361, 
365 ) From the equator to New York the track is very nearly straight. 

From New York to Pokt Philip, AusTEALiA.-The track of vessels 
bo!^d from New York to Australia is the same as that pursued by ships 
ZZi for California, until the 20th parallel south latitude is reached. In- 
deed aU vessels sailing for the South Atlantic, whether their destination 
be Bio Jandro, San FrLoisco, Cape of Good Hope or Port ^l^'^P. --^; 
™ed to follow about the same course until they have passed the latitude 
of Cape St. Koque. 

The foUowin., remarks relating to this route are taken from the " SaiKng 
n™ f 2 -"t " The gold ports of AustraUa, whether the distance be meas- 
Sed tcape Horn, o^r by'the way of the Cape of «;f /ope are e w en 
12 000 and 18,000 miles from the Atlantic ports of the United States or 
Europe. The best way for vessels in the Australian trade, f-m Europe or 
America, via the Atlantic, to go, is by doubling the Cape of Go»d Hope 
and the best way to come is, via Cape Horn ; and for this reason vi.. : The 
prevamng winds in the extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere 
fr from th^N. W., which of course makes fair winds for the outward bound 
around the Cape of Good Hope, and fair winds for the homeward bound 
around Cape Horn. Here, all is plain sailing; vesse s homeward bound 
shouU steer by the shortest cut for Cape Horn, and the outward bound 
afto doubling the Cape of Good Hope, should shape their course as direct 
?orfteport of destination as the land and winds wiU permit them." 

Many of the other routes, as marked on the map, appear to be very cir- 
cuitous and some of them are actually so ; but they are such as the long 
experience of seamen have found to be the best, and such, too, as would be 
;ursued, without much experience by a commander of - -- * V^^^lS 
acquainted with the regular movements of the air -^^J'^^.J^'J^^ 
of this book d o not admit of a furthe rexganataon,^^ 

. The track above described i, someUme, departed from, -^ - •-»;^7^X' T^t 
from New Tort to San Francisco; bu. it is ^^^''^'T^'^Z^c^^^ZlufltL^n^'' 
(&».,.» It is very nearly the course taken by Ihe ship ^>Y"SUoaaon 

l„ 90 days-.be quickest passage ever performed .'"^'^^i'-^'j;;'^- rtn^„der.t of tbe 
t This is a most valuable work prepared by Lieut. M. F. "■""■!> ""P^""^ „ ^ 
National Observatory, Washington. Itis ^-'^^^ ^^ -'"^^ .^ areTublSied aTthe 
and Current OharU," prepared by the same f l"""'^; J^^/^'^Xurto ^ commanders 
expense of the Uniled States Government, and '".'^'"''^ '^,= f'"'""*!" \^. „n their re 
of all vessels who pledge themselves to keep a joarnal of their voyages, and, on 
turn, to transmit the same to the National Observatory. 



2M 



APPENDIX. 



By perusing Lesson XVI., Part II. on the Currents of the Ocean, and also 
Lesson IV., Part III., on the Permanent Winds, tlie learner may be able 
to understand why particular deviations from a direct line are made in the 
several routes marked on the map. 



METALLIC PRODUCTIONS. 

Of the great number of metallic substances found in the earth, those of 
the^igreatest use are gold, silver, mercury, tin, copper, zinc, lead, and iron.* 

Minerals are deposited in veins or fissures of rocks, in masses, in beds, 
and sometimes in gravel and sand. Most of the metals are found in veins ; 
a, few, as gold and tin, iron and copper, are disseminated through the rocks, 
though rarely. The veins are cracks or fissures in rocks, seldom in a straight 
line, yet they maintain a general direction, and sometimes extend to an un- 
fathomable depth. 

Metals are peculiar to particular rocks : gold and tin are most plentiful 
in granite and the rocks lying immediately above it ; copper is deposited in 
various slate formations ; lead is found in the mountain- limestone system ; 

iron abounds in the coal strata; 
and silver occurs in almost all 
these formations ; its ores being 
frequently combined with those 
of other metals, especially of lead 
and copper. 

When a mine is opened, a shaft 
like a well is sunk perpendicularly 
from the surface of the ground, 
and from it horizontal galleries 
are dug at different levels accord- 
ing to the direction of the metal- 
lic veins. When mines extend 
very far in a horizontal direction, 
it becomes necessary to sink more 
shafts, which are connected to- 
gether by horizontal galleries. 
Shafts are from eight to twelve 
feet square, and are usually wall- 
ed up witli timber or stone to pre- 
Shaft. vent the sides from caving in. 

The water which filtrates through the earth would soon collect into a 




* Thirty-five metals are now known : they are gold, silver, platinum, copper, lead, tin, 
iron, zinc, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, nickel, quicksilver, manganese, cadmium, cerium, 
cobalt, iridium, uranium, chrome, lantanium, molybdenum, colunibium. osmium, palladium, 
pelapium, tantalum, tellurium, rhodium, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, dydynium, fer- 
bium, erbium. 



APPENDIX. 



205 



mine and put a stop to tlie work, were not adequate means employed to 
remove it. This is done in two ways : first, by digging a horizontal gallery 
(called an adit-level) from the mine to some adjacent valley ; in this way 
is drained all that part of the work which lies above ; and, secondly, by 
the use of pumps for drawing out the water from that part of the mine 
which is below the adit-level, or drain. Many of these drains are of great 
length, and are dug at great expense. One of these, in the mining region 
of Cornwall, England, begins in a valley near the sea, and a very little 
above its level, and goes through all the neighboring mines, which it drains 
to that dep+h, and with all its ramifications is 30 miles long. 




Mode oi Opening a Mine. 

The mode of raising ores varies with the depth of the mine. For a dis- 
tance of fifty feet, or even one hundred, the ore and rubbish may be raised 
to the surface by the simple windlass, worked by hand, on which a rope is 
so wound, that one bucket descends while the other ascends. As soon, how- 
ever, as the depth of the shaft becomes more considerable, it is necessary to 
resort to horse or steam power for raising the ore. The common machine 
used for this purpose is called a whim ; as usually constructed when worked 
by horse-power, it is represented in the annexed cut. A steam- whim is 
generally used when the shaft has a depth of more than two hundred feet. 




Mode cf Hoisting Ores. 



206 



APPENDIX. 



DISTEIBUTION OF GOLD * 
In the United States.— The United States contains two gold regions, 
but they are of very unequal importance. The one, that of the Atlantic 
slope, the " Apalachian gold-field," has been worked to a moderate extent 
for oyer thirty years; the other, "the Californian gold-field," which has, 
during the period since it was discovered, produced more than twelve times 
as much as has hitherto been obtained on the Atlantic side. 

The Apalachian gold-field extends from Georgia, in a northeasterly di- 
rection to Maryland, and is developed in the following counties : in Georgia, 
in Carroll, Cobb, Cherokee, Lumpkin, and Habersham counties; in South 
Carolma, through the whole northwestern corner of the State, especially 
in the following districts : Abbeville, Pickens, Spartanburg, Union, York, 
Lancaster ; in JVorth Carolina, in Mecklenburg, Rutherford, Cabarras, 
Rowan, Davidson, Guildford, and Rockingham; thence through Virginia^ 
in Pittsylvania, Campbell, Buckingham, Fluvanna, Louisa, Spottsylvania, 
Orange, Culpeper, Fauquier ; in Maryland, Montgomery county. Gold 
has also been found in Canada on the Du Loup and Chaudiere rivers. 

The California gold-field is the richest in the United States, and, com- 
pared with what we know of other similar regions, it is the richest in the 
world. It was first discovered in 1848, and it is calculated that, up to the 
end of 1853, it had yielded the enormous sum of two hundred and sixty 
million dollars, and that the annual product is now about fifty million dol- 
lars. This rich mineral region is in the* great valley of California, which 
has a length of about 500 miles, and a breadth of from 50 to 100. It is 
drained by two principal rivers, — the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, the 
former flowing south, and the latter north. The gold is most usually ob- 
tained in fine particles, and scales or flattened grains, and is obtained by 
washings, or the separation of the metal from the earthy substances with 
which it is mixed. Lumps or " nuggets" are not frequent, and rarely ex- 
ceed a few pounds in weight. 

In Foreign Countries. — Of the foreign countries, those most product- 
ive of gold are Australia, the Russian Empire, South Asia, the East Indies, 
Equador, New Guinea, Mexico, Brazil, and the Austrian Empire. 

The Australian gold district is, next to that of California, by far the 
most productive of any known. The existence of gold there was first made 
known in May, 1851. The gold region embraces the southeast corner of 
Australia. The annual yield is estimated at about thirty-seven million dol- 
lars. The gold of the Russian Empire is obtained almost entirely from 
the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains, from Siberia, and in the Caucasus. 
It is supposed that the countries of Russia yield gold to the value of about 
fourteen million dollars annually. 

* The author is indebted for the following facts, relating to the distribution of metals, to 
the very able work of J. D, Whitney, Esq., entitled "Metallic "Wealth of the United 
States :" Lippincott, Grambo «& Co., Philadelphia. 



APPENDIX. 20T 



DISTETBUTION OF SILYEK. 

In- the United States. — There is no silver mine at present worked in 
the United States. The silver furnished by this country comes almost wholly 
from the native gold of California, with which silver is alloyed. From this 
source a very considerable amount is obtained. 

Iiv Other Countries. — The countries particularly distinguished for 
their extensive yield of silver are Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Spain. 
Mexico is by far the richest in mines of this metal, from which, it is esti- 
mated, not less than twenty-eight million dollars worth are now annually 
obtained, an amount considerably greater than the annual yield of all the 
other mines in the world. 

The province of Guanaxuata is supposed to furnish about one half the 
amount of the silver produced in Mexico. In Peru, the richest mines are 
at Pasco, on the Andes, over 13,000 feet above the sea. Besides the Pasco 
mines, which are the richest in the world, there are numerous other mining 
districts in Peru, especially in the province of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Cax- 
amarca, and Hualgayoc. The richest silver mines of Chile are those of 
Copiapo ; those of Bolivia are at Potosi, more than 16,000 feet above the 
sea-level. Of the silver furnished by Europe, that of Spain, Russia, and 
Great Britairi is derived almost exclusively from the working of silver-lead 
ores. The only mining districts of importance, in Europe, in which silver 
ores are worked by themselves, are those of Hungary and Transylvania, 
of the Erzgebirge in Saxony and Bohemia, and of Kongsberg in JVorway. 

DISTEIBUTIOX OF MEECUET. 

In the United States. — No mercury is known to have been found east 
of the Mississippi Pdver. It is produced in considerable quantities in Cali- 
fornia, from a mine at New Almaden, in one of the side valleys of the San 
Jose. 

In Foreign Countries. — Nearly all the mercury supplied by Europe is 
obtained from the mines of Almaden in Spain, and Idria in the Austrian 
Empire. The mines of Almaden are situated in the province of La Mancha, 
near the frontier of Estramadura. These mines have been worked longer 
than any others in the world ; they were known to the Greeks at least 700 
years before the Christian era. The present yield of the Spanish mercury 
mines is about 2 5 million of pounds per annum. Mercury is obtained from 
several localities in South America, but chiefly from the mines of Huanca- 
velica, in Peru, which yield about 100,000 pounds per annum. 

DISTEIBUTION OF TIN". 

In the United States. — Tin, which is used in the manufacture of tin 
plates, is nowhere found in the United States in any considerable amount. 
The only locality in this country where this ore has been found in any no- 



208 APPENDIX. 

ticeable quantity, is at Jackson, in Carroll county, New Hampshire, but it 
has not been obtained there in a quantity sufficient to render its manufac- 
ture profitable. 

In Foreign Countries. — The most productive tin mining region in the 
■world is in Cornwall, England. The Cornish mines have been worked from 
a very early period, the metal from which foi-med an article of traffic with 
the Phoenicians and Greeks before the time of our Saviour. It is estimated 
that about 7,000 tons of tin are annually made from the ores of these mines. 
The most valuable tin mines on the continent of Europe are those of Erzge- 
birge, which are partly in Saxoiiy and partly in Bohemia. One of the 
richest deposits of tin known is in the province of Tenasserim, in the Ma- 
layan peninsula. The best quality of tin is obtained from the island of 
Banca, at the extremity of the Malacca peninsula. 

DISTEIBUTION OF COPPEE. 

In the United States. — Copper is, next to gold, iron, and lead, the 
most important metal in the United States. The richest copper mining dis- 
trict in this country is that of Lake Superior. The occurrence of native 
copper on this lake was known to the Jesuit Fathers, who, in the latter half 
of the seventeenth century, traveled extensively in that region. The mines 
were not extensively worked until after the year 1844, when the country 
was ceded to the United States by the Chippewa Indians, and opened to set- 
tlement. Since that time, numerous companies have been organized, and 
large amounts of stock contributed, for the purpose of opening and working 
mines in this region. The principal mines are those of Kewenaw Point, Isle 
Royale, Ontonagon River, and Portage Lake. The Cliff Mine of Kewenaw 
Point has been worked for the longest period, and has yielded the greatest 
amount of metal, — the total product of it, up to the close of 1853, being 
more than 2,700 tons. This mine has been excavated to the depth of 600 feet. 

Copper deposits are found at numerous localities in the valley of the Mis- 
sissippi, — those in the neighborhood of Mineral Point, Wisconsin, being the 
best known. They are found also in the region which extends along the 
western slope of the Apalachian chain of mountains from New Hampshire 
to Georgia. The principal localities in this district occur at, or near, the 
following places : ^Ya,TrenmJ\^ew Hampshii-e; Orange in Fermon^; Bristol, 
Manchester, Litchfield, and Plymouth, in Connecticut ; Belleville, Griggs- 
town, Brunswick, Woodbridge, Greenbrook, Somerville, and Flemington, in 
JSTew Jersey ; Montgomery and Chester counties in Pennsylvania ; Liberty 
and New London, in Maryland ; Fauquier county in Virginia ; Greensboro 
in JVorth Carolina ; and Polk county in Tennessee. 

In Foreign Countries. — The most noted copper mines of foreign countries 
are those of Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, which have been work- 
ed longer, and have produced more of this metal than any other mines in the 
world : they are supposed to yield about 14,000 tons annually. The country 
next in importance to England, as a copper region, is Chile, in South Amer- 
ica, where copper is the most important product. England and Chile together 



APPENDIX. 209 

supply more than half the amount of copper consumed in the world. The 
principal mines of Chile are thoBe of Carrisal, north of the valley of Huasco ; 
and at San Juan and La Higuera, between Huasco and Coquimho. Numer- 
ous mines are worked in the vicinity of Copiapo. 

The other principal copper-mining districts are those of the Ural Mount- 
ains, and the Caucasus, in the Bussiati Empire ; Mansfield, in Prussia ; 
Upper Hungary, in Austria. Copper is also obtained in JYorway, Sweden, 
Spaiti, and in the East Indies, Japan, Australia, and Cuba. 

DISTRIBUTION OF ZINC. 

Lv THE United States, — The ores of zinc are distributed over the United 
States in great abundance. Some of the more important localities are at or 
near the following places : Easton, in JYew Hampshire ; Wartsboro, in Sul- 
livan county, jYew York; Sussex connt j, JVew Jersey ; and Friedensville, 
in Lehigh county, Pennsylvania. Of the above mines, those in New Jersey 
have, as yet, yielded by far the greatest amount of this metal. The ores of 
zinc are plentifully distributed through the lead mines of the Mississippi 
valley. 

In- Foreign Countries. — Zinc is procured in Great Britain, Austria, 
and Poland ; but the countries particularly distinguished for extensive zinc 
mines are Belgium and Prussia, which, together, yield more than eight 
tenths of all that is manufactured in the world. The great Belgian zinc- 
works are in the province of Liege. The principal zinc district of Prussia 
is in the province of Upper Silesia, which produces nine tenths of the whole 
amount of this metal furnished by Prussia. 

DISTEIBTJTION OF LEAD. 

In the United States. — The lead mines of this country are abundantly 
scattered over its surface, and have yielded a larger amount in value of this 
metal than of any other, with the exception of iron and gold. The most 
productive mines are those of the Upper Mississippi lead region ; but there 
are numerous localities in the Atlantic States where considerable amounts 
of lead have been obtained. The most noted of the lead districts in the lat- 
ter division are those of Rossie, in St. Lawrence county, Ancram, in Colum- 
bia county. Northeast in Dutchess county, J\/''etv York ,• Middletown, in Con- 
necticut ; and Christie and Montgomery counties, in Pennsylvania. 

The great lead deposits of the Mississippi valley are known as the Upper 
Mississippi and the Missouri mines The first of these divisions comprehends 
the lead region lying in the southwestern portion of Wisconsin and including 
a small part of the adjacent states of Illinois and Iowa. The principal 
mining centers of this division are Galena, in Illinois ; Mineral Point, in 
Wisconsin ; and Dubuque, in Iowa. The Mississippi runs along the western 
edge of this tract, and the course of the Wisconsin River is nearly parallel 
with the northern line, and distant from it only a few miles. The mines of 
this division yield annually upward of 13,000 tons. The second division 



210 APPENDIX. 

embraces the mines of the State of Missouri, lying principally south of the 
Missouri Eiver, The principal mines are in Washington county, near Big 
Kiver and ]\Iineral Creek. 

Lv FoREiGiv CouivTRiEs. — Lead mines are distributed through most of 
the countries of Europe, but those of Great Britain and Spain are by far 
the most productive. The most extensive lead mining districts of Great 
Britain are in Cardiganshire and Montgomeryshire in Wales, and at Alston 
Moor, where the three counties of Northumberland, Durham, and Cumber- 
land come together. 

DISTEIBUnON OF lEOK 

In the United States. — Iron is so very extensively distributed through- 
out the United States, that only a mere mention of the states in which it is 
most abundant can be given in this article. Rich deposits of this metal are 
found in almost, if not quite, every State in the Union ; but the states in 
which it is manufactured to the greatest extent are Connecticut, New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, 
and Mssouri. Pennsylvania excels all other states in the manufacture of 
iron, yielding more than half of all that is made in the Union. The num- 
ber of tons of iron annually made in the United States, according to the 
census of 1850, was 850,000. Owing to the cheapness of foreign iron, and 
the extensive importation of it, the iron mines of this country are not work- 
ed so largely as they otherwise would be. 

In Foreign Countries. — Great Britain stands pre-eminent for the 
abundance of its iron and the extent of its manufacture, the annual prod- 
uce of its mines being estimated at about 3,000,000 tons. Of the other 
foreign countries noted for the production of iron, are France, Belgium, the 
Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Prussia. 

XoTE.— For the amount of metals produced throughout the world, see Table on the 
next page, taken, by permission, from " "WmiNEY's Metallic Wealth of the Ui 
States." 



APPENDIX. 



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212 APPENDIX. 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS, WITH THEIR ELEVATIONS. 

The names in larger type apply to an entire range or chain of mountains, 
and the height stated in such cases is an approximation to the average ele- 
vation which its crest attains ; the names in smaller letters, where they im- 
mediately follow that of a range, are those of some of its principal summits 
of which the exact height has been ascertained. The figures in all cases 
indicate the height above the level of the sea. 

The letter (V. ) attached to any name, signifies that it is a volcano which 
has been active within the historical period. 

IN ASIA. 

Aldan or Stanovoi Mountains (Siberia) : Ensush ™. 
Mount Kapitan 4,263 

Mountains of Kamtchatka : 

Shivelutch (V.) 10,591' 

Kliuchevsk , 16,512 

Altai Mountains (Siberia and Mongolia), from 5,000 to 7,000 : 

Mount Bielukha (lat. 50°, long. 86° 30') 11,000 

Beloor-tagh (Turkestan and Bukharia) from 15,000 to 20,000 : 

Himalaya Mountains (Hindoostan and Tibet), from 15,000 to 18,000 : 

Chumulari 23,929 

Kunchinjinga (long. 88° 30') 28,178 

' Dhawalagiri (White Mountain) 28,073 

Jawahir ••. 25.749 

Numerous other peaks exceed 20,000 

Hindoo Koosh (Afghanistan) : 

Koh-i-Baba 18,000 

Soleimaun Mountains (Afghanistan) : 

Takht-i-Soleimaun 12.000 

Caspian Mountains, or chain of El-burz (Persia) : 

Demavend 14,700 

Mountains of Zagros (Persia and Koordistan), from 6,000 to 9,000 : 
Mount Taurus (Asia Minor) : 

Arjish-dS.gh, ancient Argaeus 13,100 

Cheshish-dagh, ancient Olympus 9,000 

AravuUi Mountains (India), about 3,600. 
Vindhya Mountains (do.) from 2,500 to 3,000, 
Western Ghauts (do.) from 3,000 to 4,500. 

The highest summits about 8,000 

Neilgherry Hills (India) : 

Highest summit 8,960 

Mount Caucasus (Circassia and Georgia), from 8,000 to 10,000 : 

El-btlrz 18,493 

Ural Mountains (between Europe and Asia) : 

konjakovski (lat. 59° 38') 5,397 

Yaman (lat. 54° 13') 5,400 



APPENDIX. 213 

Mountains of Lebanon (Syria) from 6,000 to 7,000 : E^fiush ft. 
Jebel esli-Sheikh, ancient Hermon, about 10,000 

Mountains of Sinai (Arabia) : 

Highest peak 9,300 

Jebel Katerin {Mount St. CatJiarine) 8,593 

Jebel Mousa {Mount Mose^) T,498 

Mount Serbal 6,760 

Islands of Asia. 

Japan : Mount Fusi (Island of Nipbon), above 12,000 

Formosa, about , 12,000 

Java, from 5,000 to above 12,000 

Sumatra : Kasumba, about 15,000 

Pasaman, ancient Qphir '. 13,842 

Ceylon : Pedrotallagalla S,2S0 

Adam's Peak 6,152 

VS AFRICA. 

Egyptian and Nubian Mountains (along West Coast of the Red Sea), 
from 3,000 to 4,000: 

Jebel Lehuma (lat 24° 14', long. 35° 3') 9,600 

Jebel Ghrarib (lat. 28° 230, about 6,000 

Mountains of Abyssinia, from 8,000 to 9,000 : 

Mounts of Semien 15,500 

Mount Geesb 9,700 

Mountains of Zanguebar : 

Mount Kihnandjaro* (supposed) 20,000 

Mount Kenia (supposed) 20,000 

Mount Atlas (Barbary), from 3,000 to 4,000 : 

Miltsin (lat. 31° 12' N., long. 7° 24' W.) 11,400 

Mountains of Kong (Soudan), from 3,000 to 4,000 : 

West Coast Mountains : 

Peak of Cameroons 13,000 

Nieuveldt Mountains (South Africa) : 

Compass-berg 7,400 

Highest parts of Sneeu-berg, above 10,000 

Table Mountain, near Cape Town 3,582 

Islands of Africa. 

Madeira : Peak of Euivo 5,993 

Canary Islands : Peak of Teneriflfe (V.) 12,176 

Cape Verde Islands : Fogo (V.) 7,884 

Ascension : the highest point ,. 2,S70 

Fernando Po : Clarence Peak 10,655 

Bourbon : Piton des Neiges 10,355 

IN- EITROPE. 

Balkan Mountains (Turkey), from 2,000 to 3,000 : 

Sharra-t4gh, about 10,000 

Mount Pindus (Turkey and Greece) : 

Lacha, ancient Olympus 9,754 

* Discovered by a missionary in 1S49. 



214 APPENDIX. 

Height in 
English ft. 

Mante Santo, ancient Athos g 349 

Guiona (lat. 880 40', long. 22° 16') *.'.'.'.'.',".". '. ". '. *. *. \ '. '. '. '. \ * * ...... '. 8239 

St Elias, highest point of the Morea [ j'qqO 

Dinaric or Eastern Alps (Turkey) : 

Mount Kom qqqq 

Mount Dinara ij^'^gg 

The Alps (Italy and Switzerland), western parts from 8,000 to 9,000 : 

Mount Terglou 10 866 

Gross Glockner {Great Bell) '.'.!'...!!. 12766 

Ortler Spitz ...!...!.......!!!."!. 12 S52 

Mount St. Gothard *.!*..'.*.'.'.'..*.'.'.".".!'.... 10595 

Mount Furka ' '" 14'o37 

Monte Leone, or the Simplon 11541 

Monte Eosa ! .!.!.".!!!.!...!'!! ! 15152 

Monte Cervin, or Matter-horn !............ 14837 

Great St. Bernard 11063 

Mont Blanc ' \^i'^i(^ 

Little St. Bernard ! ! ! 9 591 

Mount Iseran ^^3 274 

Mount Cenis 11460 

Mount Viso 12586 

Finster-aar-horn {DarTc Peak of the Air) ".....!.. 14,106 

Jungfrau ( Virgin) ...'..."!.."..'!.... ISJIS 

Schreck-horn {Peak of Terrors) !...!.!.!.!'!. Is'sSG 

Mount Jura (France and Switzerland), from 3,000 to 4,000 : 

I^eE^ulet 5^g27 

The Apennines (Italy), from 4,000 to 5,000 : 

Monte Cimione g g^g 

Monte Sibylla l^Vi 

Monte Corno 9521 

Vesuvius (V.) 1' *!'""""!"!!!!!!!!! !!"!""!! 3^932 

The Pyrenees (France and Spain), from 7,000 to 9,000 : 

Montcalm -in ggo 

Maladetta 11 426 

Monte Perdu ' " ^ 11170 

Pic du Midi !..!!..!!!!..!.!! 9406 

Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), from 4,000 to 6,000 : 

Pena de Peneranda ^ 20 998 

Castilian Mountains (Spain and Portugal), from 4,000 to 5,000 : 

Sierra de Greitos 2q 55]^ 

Sierra d'Estrella ' ** '^'524 

Mountains of Toledo (Spain), from 2,000 to 3,000 : 

Sierra Morena (do.), from 3,000 to 4,000 : 

Sierra Nevada (do.), from 6,000 to 9,000 : 

Mu^^acen Ilg57 

"^eleta l^ggg 



The Cevennes (France), from 3,000 to 4,000 : 



Monte Mezin 



5,819 



Mountains of Auvergne (France) : 

Mount Dor6 g 221 

Puy de Dome ' 4's46 



APPENDIX. 215 

The Vosges (France), from 2,000 to 3,000 : Ssh n. 

Hercynian Mountains (Germany) : 

Brocken, Harz Mountains 3,65S 

Schnee-kopf, in the Riesin-gebirge .' 5,274 

Carpathian Mountains (Hungary and Transylvania), from 5,000 to 
6,000 : 

Peak of Lomnitz, in group of Mount Talra 8,6T5 

Scandinavian Mountains (Norway and Sweden) : 

Skagstol-tind, in the Langfield 8,101 

Snee-hajtten, in the Dovre-field 8,120 

Sulitelma, in the Koclen Mountains 6,178 

Islands of Europe, 
British Islands : 

Ben Wyvis (Northern Highlands of Scotland), Boss 3,720 

Ben Macdhui (Grampians), Aberdeen 4,389 

Ben Nevis (do.) Inverness 4,373 

Ben Lawers (do.) Perth 3,945 

Ben Lomond (do.) Stirling 3,191 

Scaw Fell (Cumbrian Mountains), Cumberland 3,166 

Helvellyn (do.) do 3,065 

Skiddaw (do.) do 3,022 

Snowden (Welsh Mountains) 3,571 

Plynlimmon (do.) . . . , 2,463 

Slieve Donard (Mourue Mountains), Ireland 2,796 

Lugnaquilla (Mountains of Wicklow), do 3,039 

Macgillicuddy's Eeek's (Mountains of Kerry) Ireland 3,404 

Goal Fell (Island of Arran) 2,865 

Paps of Jura (Island of Jura), Hebrides 2,470 

Ben-more (Island of Mull), do 3,168 

Cuchullan (Island of Skye), do 2,995 

Hecla (Island of South Uist), do 2,940 

Clisseval (Island of Lewis) do 2,700 

Highest point of Hoy Island (Orkney Islands) 1,590 

Mount Eona, Mainland, (Shetland Islands) 1,470 

Iceland : 

Snaefell K 6,862 

Hecla (V.) 5,210 

Azores, or Western Islands : 

Grand Pico 8,057 

Corsica : 

Monte Eotondo 9,069 

Sardinia : 

Monte Schiuschiu, about ^'000 

Sicily : 

Etna(Y.) 1^'874 

Candia : 

Psiloritti, ancient Ida '^'^OO 

IN" NORTH AMERICA. 

Rocky Mountains : 

Mount Brown (lat. 52° 350 about l^'^OO 

Mount Hooker (lat. 52° 15^, about ^^''^^O 



216 APPENDIX 

Height in 
Englisli ft. 

Long's Peak (lat. 40° 20') 13,575 

James' Peak (lat. 38° 50') 11,320 

Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountains (California), probably above 10,000 : 
West Coast Mountains (New Caledonia, Oregon, and California) : 

Mount St. Elias (lat. 60° 20', long. 140"^ 30' W.) 17,900 

Mount Fairweather (lat. 59° 2') 14,750 

Mount St. Helens (lat. 46°), about. 12,000 

Mount Hood (lat. 45° 5'), about 12,000 

On the Table-lands of Mexico and Central America : 

Orizaba (V.), lat. 19° 3', long. 97° 11' W 17,373 

Popoeatepell (V.), lat. IS^ 55', long. 98° 30' 17,884 

Toluca (lat. 19° 9', long. 99° 26') 15,271 

Colima (V.), lat. 19° 4', long. 103° 7' 9,193 

Jomllo (V.), lat. ISO 54', long. 101° 30' 4,114 

Agua (V.), Guatemala 12,260 

Alleghany or Apalachian Mountains, from 2,500 to 3,000 : 

Mount Washington ("White Mountains), New Ilampsldre 6,285 

Mount Adams (do.), do. 5,y(j3 

Mount Madison (do.). do. 5,617 

Mount Wachuset, Massachusetts 2,018 

Mount Emmons, New York 4,500 

Mount Mclntire do, 5,180 

Mount Marcy, or Tahawus, Ne/w York , 5>467 

Mount Seward, do 4,800 

Mount Mitchel, North Carolina 6476 

IN SOUTH AMERICA. 

The Andes, or Cordilleras de los Andes : between 5° N. lat. and 2° S. 
lat., from 11,000 to 12,000; between 15° and 19° S. lat., about 
15,000; southward of 42° lat., about 3,000 : 

Tolima (lat. 40 48' N.) ...,,. = . 18,314 

Cayambe (lat. 0° 4' S.) » 19,625 

Antisana (Y.) lat. 0° 30' S 19,126 

Cotopaxi (V.), lat. 0° 39' S 18,858 

Chimborazo (lat. 1° 22' S.) * 2i,4l5 

Illimani (lat. 16° 42' S.) 21,140 

Aconcagua (lat. 32° 40' S.) 23,944 

Mountains of Venezuela, from 4,000 to 5,000 : 

Sierra de Merida (lat. 8° 6' N., long. 71^ 10' W.) 16,420 

Slla de Caraccas 8,630 

Mountains of Parime or Guayana, from 4,000 to 5,000 : 

M^ruvaca (lat. 3° 40' N., long. 65^ 47' W.), about 11.000 

Duida, or la Esmeralda (lat. 8° 17' N., long. 66° 40' W.) 8,273 

Eoraima 7.450 

Mountains of Brazil, from 2,000 to 3,000 : 

Sierra Manliqueira, highest summit 8,426 

Itacolumi (lat. 20^^ 30' S.) 5,710 

Islands of America. 
West Indies : 

Cuba . Sierra de Cobre , 8,600 



APPENDIX. 217 

Height In 
Englisli ft. 

Jamaica : Blue Mountains, above 7,000 

Hayti : Mountains of Cibao 8,600 

Porto Eico : Sierra de Languilla 3,678 

Guadaloupe : Souffriere (V.) 5,500 

Dominica : Highest Peak 6,000 

Martinique : Mount Pelee 4,400 

St. Lucia : Gros Piton 2,710 

St. Vincent : Morne Garou 4,800 

Tierra del Fuego : 

Mount Sarmiento 6,800 

IN AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. 

Australia : 

Mount Lindesay (lat. 28° 16' S., long. 152° 45' E.) 5,700 

Canobolas (lat. 33° 21' S., long. 149° 1' E.) 4,461 

i Blue Mountains, highest point of 3,232 

Australian Alps, or Warragong Mountains, above 12,000 

Darling Eange, West Coast, about 2,500 

Tasmania : 

Wyldes Crag 4,500 

New Zealand ; 

Mount Egmont 8,833 

Society Islands : 

Tahiti, highest point, about 7,000 

Sandwich Islands : 

Mowna Koa (Y.), Owhyhee 18,764 

MownaEoa(Y.) do 13,430 

South Victoria : 

Mount Erebus (Y.) 12,400 

10 



218 APPENDIX. 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS, WITH THEIR CHIEF 
TRIBUTARIES ; 

SHOWING THEIR S0ITECE8, — THE COUNTRIES THEOtTGH WHICH THEY FLOW, — THE SEAS INTO 
WHICH THEY FALL, — AND THEIE APPKOXIMATB LENGTH IN ENGLISH MILES. 

After the name of each river follow, — 1st (between parentheses), that of 
the district in which it rises; — 2d., the names of its principal tributaries; — 
3cl, in italics, the countries through which it flows ; 4th, the sea or ocean 
into which it falls ; and lastly, its length, when ascertained, inclusive of 
the principal windings of its stream. 

IIN" ASIA. 

Miles. 

Obi (Altai Mountains), Irtish, Ishim, Tobol ;* Siberia : Arctic Ocean 2,530 

Tenesei (do.), Upper Tungouska or Angara, Middle Tungouska, Lower 

Tungouska : Siberia : Arctic Ocean 2,900 

Lena (Altai Mountains), Vitim, Olekma, Aldan, Yiliui : Siberia : Arctic Ocean 2,400 

Amour (Plateau of Mongolia), Songari : Mongolia, Mancliouria : Gulf of Tartary . 2,300 

Hoang-ho (Kuen-lun Mountains), Wei-ho : China : Yellow Sea 2,600 

Yang-tse-kiang (do.), Yuen-Kian, Han-kiang: C/iina .- Yellow Sea 3,200 

Choo-kiang (Nan-ling Mountains), — China: Chinese Sea. 

May-kuang or Mekon (Plateau of Tibet), — Tibet, China, Ccmibodia: Chinese Sea. 

Meinam (Mountains of Yunnan), — China, Laos, Siain : Gulf of Siam. 

Saluen (Plateau of Tibet), — Tibet, China, between Birmah and Siam: Gulf of Mar- 

taban. 

Irawady (Plateau of Tih&\.),— Birmah : Bay of Bengal 1,200 

Brahmapootra (do.), Di-hong :t Assam, Ilindoostan : Bay of Bengal. 

Ganges (Himalaya Mountains), Jumna, Goomtee, Gogra, Sone, Gunduck, Coosy: 

India : Bay of Bengal 1,460 

Mahanuddy (Plateau of Deccan), — India : Bay of Bengal 

Godavery (Ghauts), — /?ic?m ; Bay of Bengal. 

Krishna (do.), do. : do. 

Cauvery (do.), do.: do. 

Tapty (Plateau of Deccan),— 7;irfia.- Gulf of Cambay. 

Nerbudda (do.) do. : do. 

Indus (Plateau of Tibet), Cabool, Chenaub, Jelum, Eavee, Sutlej, Beas •.% India : 

Arabian Sea , ...„.....„,.. 1,700 

Euphrates (Plateau of Armenia), Tigris : Al-jesireh, Irak-Aribi : Persian Gulf 1,600 

Jordan (Mountains of Lebanon), Hieromax, Jabbok : Palestine : Dead Sea § 237 

Kour (do.), Aras: (?ec>r^za ; Caspian Sea. 

Ural or laik (Ural Mountains), — between Europe and Asia : Caspian Sea. 

Amoo or Jihon (Plateau of Pamer), — Turkestan : Sea of Aral 1,300 

Sir or Sihoon (Mooz-tagh), — Turkestan ; Sea of Aral 

llelmund (Hindoo Koosh;, — Afghanistan L Zurrah. 

Tarim or Ergheu (Plateau of VAmni),—LiULe Bukliaria .' L. Lop 

* The Ishim and Tobol, though tributaries of fhe Obi, are Tlat properly its affluents, since they both termi- 
nate in the Irtish, above the junction of that river with the main stream of the Obi. 

t The Di-hon^' is probably the same river as the San-poo of Tibet, -which flows along the northern base of 
the Himalaya Mountains ; this, however, is not ascertained. 

X The Jelum, Ravee, and Sutlej are affluents of the Chenaub ; and the Beas is an affluent of the Sutlej : 
these streams flow through the Puiijaub, t. e., the country of the Penj-ab, or five rivers. 

§ The entile length of the valley of the Jordan does not exceed 106 miles ; ^ut the river is extremely 
winding, so fluu-h so that between tlie Lake of Tiberias and the Dead Sea (a direct distance of only 68 miles) 
It flows uearly 200 miles. Niunerovis rapids occur iu this portiou ol its course. 



f APPENDIX. 219 

IN" AFRICA. 

Miles. 
Nilt. ,'f lateau of Central Africa), ^biii or Buhr el-Azrek,* Tacazze : Donga, Xuiia, 

^9'^pt •' Mediterranean Sea. 
Senegol (Mountains of Western Soudan), — Seneganibia : Atlantic Ocean. 
Gambia (do.), do. : do, 

Quorra or Niger (do.), Quarrama, Coudonia, Chadda: Soudan: 

Gulf of Guinea. 
•Zaire or Congo (Plateau of Central AMca),— Congo : Atlantic Ocean. 
Coanza (do.), — Angola : do. 

Gariep or Orange River (Mountains of South Africa), Fish Eiver: South Africa: 

Atlantic Ocean 1,050 

Zambesi (Interior of Africa), — East Africa : Indian Ocean. 

IN EUROPE. 

Volga (Plateau of Valdai), Mologa, Oka, Kama : JRussia : Caspian Sea 2,200 

Don (Great European Plain), — Russia : Sea of Azov 1,100 

Dnieper (do.), Pripet, Boug : Russia : Black Sea 1,200 

Dniester (Carpathian Mountains), — Galicia, Russia: do. 

Danube (Schwarz Wald), Inn, March or Morava, Drave, Theiss, Save, Marava, Aluta, 

Pruth : Germany, Hungary, Turkey : Black Sea 1,630 

Po (Alps), Ticino, Adda, Mincio : Italy : Adriatic Sea 450 

Tiber (Apennines), — Italy ; Mediterranean Sea. 

Ehone (Alps), Saone . Switzerland, France : Mediterranean Sea 490 

Ebro (Cautabrian Mountains), — Spain : Mediterranean Sea 420 

Guadalquiver (Table-land of Spain), — Spain : Atlantic Ocean 290 

Guadiana (do.), — Si:>ain, Portugal : Atlantic Ocean 450 

Tagus (do.), do.: do. 510 

Douro (do."), do.: do. 460 

Garonne (P.vrenees), Tarn, Lot, Dordogne : France : Bay of Biscay 350 

Loire (Cevennes), Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne : France : do.- 570 

Seine (Plateau of Langres), Aube, Tonne, Marne, Oise : France : English Channel 430 
Scheldt (Plain of Northern YrajxcQ),— France, Belgium : German Ocean. 
Ehine (Alps), Aar, Neckar, Maine, Moselle, Meuse : Switzerland,, Germany, Hol- 
land : German Ocean 760 

Weser (Hercynian Mountains), — Germany : German Ocean. 

Elbe (do.), do.: do. 690 

Oder (do.), do.: Baltic Sea 550 

Vistula (Carpathian Mountains), — Poland, Prussia : Baltic Sea 623 

Niemen (Great European Plain), — Russia. Prussia : do. 

Duna (Plateau of YsXAai),— Russia : Gulf of Eiga 550 

Neva (from L. Ladoga, do.: Gulf of Finland 45 

Tornea 

Lulea 

Pitea 

Umea 

Indals 

Dal J 

Gota (from L. "Wener), — Sweden : Cattegat 53 

Glommen (Scandinavian Mountains), — Norway : Skager-rack. 

Dwina (Great European Plain), — Russia : White Sea 760 

Petchora (Ural Mountains), do. : Arctic Ocean. 



(Scandinavian Mountains), — Sweden: Baltic Sea. 



* At Kliartoom (lat. 15° 3i' N.), the two branclies of the Nile unite ; the eastern of these is distinguished 
jis the Bahr el-Azrek or Blue River, and the western as the Bahr el-Abiad or White River. The latter is the 
longer, and is now generally regarded as the true Nile ; its source.has not yet been explored, but the entire 
length of the river by this branch is probably not less than 3,500 miles. Tlie Bahr el-Azrek rises in the 
Mountains of Abyssinia ; from this souice to the Mediterranean the NUe measures 2,600 mUea. 



220 APPP^NDIX. 



Spey (Grampian Mountains), Avon : Scotland : North Sea, — ...... 96 

Don (do.), do.: do. 65 

Dee (do.), do.: do 8T 

Tay (do.), Tumel, Isla, Earn : Scotland : German Ocean 95 

Forth {Graxapia-as.),— Scotland : German Ocean , 50 

Tweed (Lowther Hills), Etiriclf, Lauder, Teviot, Till : Scotland, between England 

and Scotland : German Ocean 96 

Tyne (Pennine Chain),— Migland : German Ocean 70 

Wear (do.), do-: do. 60 

Tees (do.), do.: ' do. T5 

fOuse (Pennine Chain), Tore, Wharfe, Derwent, Aire, Don 1 Enaland' I 

Humbert • ° '^^^\ German I 180 

I Trent (StafiFordshire Moorlands), Tame. Dove, Derwent, i Ocean. ' 

I Soar 140j j 

Witham (Central Vl&va.)— England : The Wash . 75 

Welland (do.), do.: do. 60 

Nen (do.), do.: do f 85 

Ouso (do.), do.: do 145 

Thames (Cotswold Hills), Cherwell, Thame, Kennet,Lea, Medway: England: Ger- 
man Ocean 215 

Severn (Welsh Mountains), Virnwy, Teme, Avon, Wye: Wales, England : Bristol 

Channel 240 

Dee (Welsh Mountains), — Wales, England : Irish Sea. 

Mersey (Pennine Chain), Irwell : England : do 170 

Eden (do.), do. : Solway Firth 80 

Clode (Lowther Kms.)— Scotland : Firth of Clyde 98 

Liffey (Mountains of Wicklow), — Ireland : Irish Sea 75 

Barrow (Slieve Bloom Mountains), Nore : Ireland : Waterford Harbor 105 

Suir (do.), do.: do. 100 

Shannon (Mountains of Cavan), Suck : do. : Atlantic Ocean 224 

Boyne (Central Vl&m),— Ireland : Irish Sea 80 

IN NORTH AMERICA. 

Mackenzie (Great Slave Lake), Eiver au Liards : British America: Arctic Ocean. 
Churchill or Missinippi (Central Plain of North America), British America: Hud- 
son's Bay. 
Nelson (Lake Winnipeg), — British America: Hudson's Bay. 
St. Lawrence (Lake Ontario), Ottawa, Eicheheu : Canada : Gulf of St. Lawrence . . 692 

Hudson (Adirondack Mountains), Mohawk .• United States: Atlantic Ocean 325 

Delaware (Catskill Mountains), SchuylkDl : do. : Atlantic Ocean 300 

Susquehanna (Alleghany Mountains), do.: Chesapeake Bay 500 

Potomac (do.), do.: do. 400 

James Eiver (do.), do.: do. 350 

Mississippi (Lake Itasca), St. Peter's, Wisconsin, des Moines, Missouri, Ohio, Arkan- 
sas, Eed Eiver : United States : Gulf of Mexico 2,400 

Ditto, Missouri branch (Eocky Mountains), Yellow-stone, Platte, Kanzas: U. S. Ter- 
ritory : total length by this branch, about 4,000 

Del Norte (Eocky Mountains), Puercos : between Texas and 3fexico : Gulf of Mexico. 
Colorado (do.), Gila : California : Gulf of California. 
Sacramento (Sierra Nevada), San Joaquim: California : Pacific Ocean. 
Oregon or Columbia (Eocky Mountains), Wallamet, des Chutes, Lewis or Snake, 
Flathead, Koutani : Oregon Territory : Pacific Ocean 1,206 

IN SOUTH AMERICA. 

Magdalena (Andes), Cauca : New Granada : Caribbean Sea 860 



APPENDIX. 221 

Miles. 
Orinoco (Parime Mountains), Ventuari, Guaviari, Meta, Arauca, Apure, Caura: 

Venezuela : Atlantic Ocean ... , ^ 1.200 

Essequibo (Sierra Acaray), Massaroouy, Cuyuni: British Quay ana : Atlantic Ocean. 
Demerura (do.), —Bntiah Guayaiia : All-dulic Ocean. 

Berbice (do.), do.: ' a >. 

Corentyn (do.), l>eiween British and Dutch Guayana : Atlantic Ocean, 

Surinam (Sierra Acaray), — Dutch Guayana : 

Amazon or Muranon (Andes), Huallaga, Ucayale, Napo, Javary, Putumayo, Jutay, 
Jurua, Japura, Teffe, Purus, Negro, Madeira, Topajos, Xingu, Tocaiitins : Peru, 

between Peru and Equador, Brazil : Allanlic Ocean 3,900 

San Francisco (Mountains of Brazil),— Brazil : do. 1,500 

f Parana (do.), Paranahyba, Iguassa, Paraguay, Salado : jBra- 

p. , p J zil, Paraguay, and La Plata : Atlantic Ocean 2,350 

I Uruguay (Mountains of Brazil),— Brazil, between Banda Orientale 
(. and La Plata^ 

IN AUSTRALIA. 
Brisbane 
Lagan 
Clarence 
Mac Leay 
Hastings 
Manning 
Hunter 
Hakesbury 
Shoal haven 

Murray (Warragong Mountains), Ovens, Goulburn, Mumimbigbee, Lachlan,* Dar- 
ling : New South Wales, South Australia : Indian Ocean 1,280 

Swau Eiver (Darling Eange), — Western Australia: Indian Ocean. 

IN TASMANIA, OR VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. 

Derwent (L. St. Clair), Pacific Ocean 130 

Tamar, — Bass' Strait. 

IN NEW ZEALAND. 

Wai-hou or Thames, — Bast Coast of l^^orth Island: Gulf of Hauraki, Pacific Ocean. 

Waikato,— West Coast : Pacific Ocean 215 

Wauganui, do. : do. 

* The Lachlan is an affluent of the Kiver Murrumbigbee, whichi it joins about 90 miles above the con- 
fluence of the latter -with the Murray. 



' (Mountains of the East Coast), — Keto South Wales : Pacific Ocean. 



.222 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE* OF MEAN TEMPERATURE OF 



COUNTEIES. 


Lat. N. 


Long. W. 


Melville Island 


' 
74 47 
73 14 
69 59 
66 11 
62 11 
62 1 

65 12 
57 10 

66 24 

62 17 
55 48 

63 50 
59 56 
55 45 
46 48 
59 55 
59 21 

44 39 

45 31 
43 40 

52 13 
42 16 
51 20 
55 41 

51 07 

54 20 

55 58 
50 40 

53 05 

52 30 
42 21 

53 21 
50 22 

46 12 
48 13 

50 51 

51 30 
46 59 
48 50 
51 27 

—36 51 

—42 53 

45 11 

39 57 

40 43 


110 48 


Port Bowen 


88 56 


Boothia Felix 


92 1 


Winter Island 


83 11 


Fort Simpson, 


121 32 


lakutsk 


^129 44 


Fort Franklin , ^ ^ , 


123 13 


Nain 


61 50 


Torneo 


—23 47 


Irkutsk 


—104 17 


Kazan 


—49 7 


Umea 


—20 16 


St. Petersburgh 


—30 18 


Moscow 


—37 38 


Quebec 


71 17 


Christiana 


—10 45 


Stockholm ... 


—18 4 


Halifax 


63 38 


Montreal . . ... 


73 35 


Toronto 


79 22 


Warsaw 


—21 1 


Delaware 


74 58 


Leipsic . . . . . . . 


—12 22 




—12 35 




—17 02 




—18 41 








3 11 




—10 30 




—•8 49 


Berlin 


—13 24 


Boston -. -- 


71 4 


Dublin 


6 11 


Plymouth . . .. 


4 7 


Geneva - - 


—6 10 


Vienna » . ......... .00... 


—16 23 


Brussels . . . . .. 


—4 22 


Tion fl nn . . .... ..:; . . 


5 


Neufchatel 


6 55 




—2 20 


Bristol = 


2 36 


Auckland 


—174 54 


TTobart Town 


—147 28 


Turin 


—7 41 


Philadelnhia 


75 1 


New York 


74 1 







* In the above Table, a minus sign (— ) placed before a degree of lat, indicates that 



APPENDIX 



228 



EACH SEASON AND OF THE WHOLE YEAH. 



Elevation above 
level of sea. 


Winter. 


Spring. 


Summer. 


Autumn. 


Year. 


Feet. 



















—28-45 


—3-19 


37-08 


—0-48 


1-24 




—25-09 


—5-77 


34-40 


10-58 


3-53 


.. 


—21-71 


—5-21 


38-04 


9-69 


3-70 




—20-47 


6-35 


31-80 


17-58 


8-82 


250 


—11-04 


26-10 


■59-16 


26-24 


25-12 




—36-37 


15-61 


61-72 


12-76 


13 43 


230 


—16-66 


14-05 


50-23 


21-12 


17-18 




3-66 


24-57 


47-90 


35-16 


27-82 




6-41 


27-83 


57-89 


32-10 


31-06 


1355 


0-90 


35-29 


61-50 


32-77 


32-62 


150 


6-34 


36-20 


62-39 


36-91 


35-45 




13-47 


33-16 


57-42 


37-45 


35-37 




18-66 


37-06 


61-68 


41-02 


39-61 


400 


15-20 


40-98 


63-97 


39-94 


40-02 




14-15 


39-05 


68-08 


46-10 


41-85 


"74 


23-18 


40-08 


59-88 


42-62 


41-45 


128 


26-04 


38-21 


60-43 


44-41 


42-27 




21-00 


31-67 


61-00 


46-67 


40-08 




17-79 


45-76 


71-40 


48-08 


45-76 


'340 


25-43 


42-34 


64-63 


46-81 


44-81 


'351 


24-91 


43-05 


63-21 


45-41 


44-15 


1384 


26-64 


43-48 


67-38 


48-03 


46-38 




31-79 


45-72 


60-25 


47-86 


46-41 




31-31 


43-54 


62-70 


48-70 


46-56 


373 


29-19 


45-73 


63-61 


48-42 


46-74 




30-01 


43-57 


61*92 


47-06 


45-64 




37-08 


44-64 


57-37 


47-64 


46-68 


220 


38-45 


45-02 


57-17 


47-89 


47-13 




32-61 


46-58 


63-46 


48-90 


47-89 




33-10 


47-11 


63-30 


48-99 


48-13 


ioo 


31-45 


47-41 


64-56 


49-23 


48-16 




28-29 


46-09 


69-04 


50-46 


48-47 




39-83 


47-16 


59-57 


49-63 


49-05 




44-88 


49-68 


60-87 


52-91 


52-08 


1253 


34-04 


52-21 


70-36 


54-25 


52-71 


450 


31-95 


51-60 


69-40 


51-16 


51-03 


262 


38-01 


49-04 


64-04 


51-60 


50-68 




39-50 


49-06 


62-93 


51-83 


50-83 


1350 


35-68 


50-08 


66-50 


52-07 


51-08 


114 


37-85 


50-62 


64-58 


52-20 


51-31 




40-33 


50-33 


64-33 


51-67 


51-67 




66-92 


59-83 


50-75 


56-83 


58-58 




63-06 


51-55 


42-14 


52-75 


52-37 


857 


33-46 


53-73 


71-51 


53-80 


53-13 




30-07 


49-80 


71-36 


51-87 


50-78 


-- 


30-12 


52-06 


70-93 


53-20 


51-58 



the lat. is s<mt\ and placed before a degree of long, denotes that it is east long. 



2U 



APPENDIX. 



COrXTEEES. 



L£L X. 



Lone. "^. 



! 
Pekin.... 


. 39 54 
38 57 
47 13 
45 38 
44 50 

40 25 

43 18 

41 54 
—34 54 

—0 14 

40 52 

44 24 
38 42 

— ^15 55 
19 25 
36 58 
38 11 

—34 11 

31 13 

41 23 

32 38 
41 
36 32 

31 47 
38 

35 54 

29 58 

32 20 

36 07 
36 48 
23 8 

30 2 

33 21 
—22 54 

13 20 
' 23 9 

19 12 
i 12 45 

25 18 
i 21 50 
1 22 35 
1 18 56 

! 1 1" 
1 -6 9 

' & 34 
i 13 4 


—116 26 


TT a sMnoion 


76 55 


Xantes 


1 38 


i Trieste . 


—13 46 


Bordeaux . . .. ..-.. 


85 


Aladrid ..-.». 


3 42 


Marseilles 


—5 22 


Eome 


—12 25 


Alonterideo 


56 13 


Quito 


78 4-5 


Xaples 


—14 15 


Genoa 


—8 54 


Lisbon 


9 9 


St. Helena 


543 


Mexico 


99 6 


\orfblk (Virginia, TJ. S.) 

Messina 


76 16 
—15 34 


Cape of Good Hope 


18 26 




—29 48 




—2 12 




16 06 


Constantinople 

Cadiz . 


—29 
6 18 


Jemsalem 


35 -14 


Ionian Islands 


—21 


Alalia 


—14 34 




90 7 




64 50 




5 21 


Tunis 


10 11 


Canton . 


—113 16 


Cairo - 


—31 15 


Baotiad -- 


—44 22 


Rio Janeiro 


43 16 


Alocha • - --. 


—50 44 


Jjavana < ................ . 


82 23 


Yera Cruz 


96 9 


Serinfapatam - - 


—76 51 




go 5Q 


\ya 


—96 5 


Calcutta - -.^. ...... .. 


—88 20 


]3oni.ba'^ ... ... .... 


—7-^ 54 


SiiLzaP'jre . ........ 


—108 50 


Ba'tiTia ..... 


— lf»6 53 


TTinr-riTTinlep ..... 


—81 '>^ 


A£adras ........ 


—80 19 







APPENDIX. 



225 



Elevation above 
level of sea. 


Winter. 


Spring. 


Summer. 


Autumn. 


Year. 


Feet. 


o 





o 


o 


o 


.. 


28-23 


55-51 


75-17 


54-22 


53-28 


iis 


37-76 


56-19 


76-74 


66-87 


56-89 




40-63 


54-65 


68-68 


55-63 


54-90 




39-44 


53-69 


71-39 


56-69 


55-30 




43-10 


56-08 


71-08 


57-88 


67-03 


1939 


43-16 


55-64 


76-40 


57-44 


68-16 


140 


45-22 


55-91 


72-93 


59-21 


68-32 


160 


46-73 


58-25 


74-24 


62-75 


60-49 




77-33 


68-00 


57-33 


64-77 


68-83 


8970 


77-60 


60-17 


59-71 


60-61 


73-31 




47-65 


57-56 


74-38 


61-46 


60-26 


_. 


47-33 


58-81 


75-08 


62-97 


61-05 




52-52 


59-66 


70-94 


62-48 


61-40 


1764 


63-87 


64-96 


58-41 


58-38 


61-40 


6990 


53-64 


63-42 


65-23 


60-13 


60-60 




46-95 


62-91 


78-30 


66-69 


63-71 




54-97 


61-48 


77-14 


69-21 


65-70 




66-95 


62-00 


54-39 


59-73 


60-77 




64-43 


69-31 


76-89 


69-04 


63-03 


204 


50-18 


60-37 


77-0 


64-51 


63-03 


80 


63-50 


64-46 


71-60 


70-88 


67-61 




40-94 


53-00 


71-36 


60-56 


56-47 




52-90 


59-53 


70-43 


65-35 


62-06 


2500 


49-61 


60-50 


73-88 


66-53 


62-63 




58-06 


60-37 


76-89 


69-04 


63-03 




58-06 


60-37 


77-0 


69-04 


63-03 




55-80 


72-08 


82-04 


69-28 


69-80 


.. 


5^-76 


63-74 


75-20 


71-90 


67-40 




67-93 


66-25 


77-82 


67-76 


67-44 




65-76 


64-94 


83-00 


71-36 


68-77 




64-88 


69-83 


82-00 


72-83 


69-88 


-- 


58-52 


73-58 


85-10 


71-48 


72-17 


__ 


49-62 


75 '04 


93-13 


77-16 


73-74 




79-15 


74-70 


68-60 


72-56 


73-75 




79-78 


89-07 


52-93 


89-51 


76-91 




72-98 


76-22 


81-35 


78-12 


77-17 




70-88 


77-00 


81-92 


78-26 


77-02 


2412 


71-33 


82-07 


74-97 


74-67 


75-76 


300 


66-17 


87-78 


87-24 


79-87 


80-26 




68-82 


81-92 


83-59 


79-16 


78-39 


"80 


72-25 


87-60 


86-72 


83-06 


82-41 




77-44 


83-25 


82-84 


81-54 


81-27 




79-24 


81-05 


81-61 


80-82 


80-68 




78-67 


79-50 


78-16 


77-00 


78-33 




77-33 


79-93 


83-90 


81-85 


80-75 


-- 


77-06 


83-09 


86-18 


81-45 


81-94 



10^ 



A STEW SERXES 



SCHOOL GEOGRAPHIES, 

PUBLISHED BY 

J. He COLTON AND COMPANY, 

No. 172 WILLIAM STEEET, NEW YOEK. 



INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY, 

FOR THE 

¥©I[Jir©]l]E eiLASS ©F 0©HOILAl&io 



The plan of this book is in keeping with the succeeding and larger 
works, namely, the " Modern School. Geography" and the " American 
School Geography," though simplified to the capacity of beginners, and 
adapted especially for use in the school-room. The fact is established be- 
yond contradiction, that the limited and imperfect exercises on the Maps 
usually found in this class of books is insufficient to impart that amount of 
geographical knowledge which juvenile learners are capable of acquiring. 

Teachers say that after using such books for a long time, they can scarce- 
ly perceive themselves, much less exhibit to others, any real and useful ad- 
vancement on the part of their pupils in this study, A Primary Geog- 
raphy should be copious in its questions on the Maps, without, however, 
having them too numerous. This feature will constitute one of the many 
improvements introduced in this book. The Maps are not the ordinary 
coarse wood-cuts commonly put before children, but are beautifully en- 
graved expressly for this work, and great pains have been taken to make 
them what they should be. 

The Pictorial Illustrations are of the finest kind', and are designed to 
serve not only the purpose of embellishment, but of affording valuable 
geographical information. 



COtTO]\ AWB FITCH'S 

MODERN SCHOOL 

GEOGRAPHY. 



This book, in quarto form, is designed for that yery large class of 
scholars in our schools who wish to learn the more important facts of geog- 
raphy, but have not time to consult thoroughly the most elaborate treatises. 

The aim of the Author has been to present in this work such facts, and 
such only, as every scholar should understand before he completes his term 
of instruction. Accordingly, all tedious detail and extended description 
are omitted; and the learner's attention is confined principally to the 
Maps, from which only can correct and definite impressions of locality be 
obtained. 

The Publishers would call the particular attention of Teachers and oth- 
ers to the Maps which illustrate this book. Every intelligent instructor 
must have noticed that the maps generally put into the geographies pre- 
pared for Common Schools are extremely meagre and imperfect ; many 
countries are not represented at all, and those which are exhibited are de- 
lineated on so small a scale, and are so carelessly drawn, that the impres- 
sions they convey are of scarcely any value. 

The greatest possible pains have been taken with the compilation, draw- 
ing, and engraving of these Maps, to make them full, clear, and reliable ; 
and they will possess the additional merit, not found in any other similar 
book published in this country, of showing contiguous states and coun- 
tries on the same scale. This is an important desideratum, and has been 
hitherto entirely disregarded in the preparation of School Greographies, the 
consequence being that no correct ideas of relative size and dimension are 
obtained. Other desirable improvements are introduced, and the Publishers 
feel confident that the Map illustrations far excel those of any similar 
book. 

It is made as complete as the limits and design of the work will allow, 
and by far the largest number of pupils in our Common Schools will find it 
all they need in acquiring a good knowledge of geography. 



COLSOir AWD FITCH'S 



The mde-spread demand for a new School Geography of high order, and 
the conviction in their minds that a great improvement on those in general 
use is needed and attainable, has induced the Publishers to undertake the 
enterprise of producing such a work ; and no pains or expense have been 
spared in making a first-rate geographical text-book. 

Previously to commencing the task of preparing a new school geography, 
the Author (Mr. George W. Fitch) communicated with a great number of 
experienced Teachers, respecting the defects of our present books, and the 
manner in which the subject should be treated in order to meet their appro- 
bation. Profiting by the suggestions thus obtained, as well as by his own 
experience in teaching, he has sought to make the work eminently practical, 
and to adapt it especially for use in the school-room. 

It has been a leading idea with the Author to give particular prominence 
to the facts of Physical Geography, and to arrange them in such a way 
that the learner may see the relations they bear to each other, and to the 
industrial afi"airs of mankind. 

Great advancement has been made in this department of geographical 
science during the past few years, and the Author is not aware that th& 
facts relating thereto, with appropriate illustrations, have ever been system- 
atically embodied in an American school-book, adapted to the comprehen- 
sion of the great mass of scholars in our Common Schools and Academies 
The Author trusts that his mode of treating this branch of the subject will 
meet the approbation of all intelligent Teachers. 

The work is entirely new, with new Maps and Pictorial Illustrations 
throughout. The Maps are nearly two inches longer and wider than those 
of any existing school-atlas, and they are also more numerous, thus afford- 
ing space for an enlarged scale, so essential for the proper delineation of 
small and populous states. They represent the most recent surveys and ex- 
plorations, and exhibit the physical and political divisions of the globe 
according to the most recent information. 

Some of the improvements introduced into this book are — 

1. It contains, as far as practicable, A ttnitoem; Scale of Maps, all of them being drawn so 

that an inch represents distances of either 25, 50, 100, 200, or some other easily com- 
pared number of geographical miles. 

2, It describes, by means of pictorial illustrations and suitable Maps, the Phtsicai, Geoq- 

EAPHT of each Continent. 

8. The questions on each Map are arranged together; they precede the descriptive infor- 
mation, and are in large and plain print. 

4. The Maps are large, embrace a great amount of information, and exhibit the latest 
discoveries — the present territorial arrangements and the geography of recently pop- 
ulated districts — and engraved in a style unequaled. 

6. The style of lettering is bold. The names of all the water divisions are in LEANING 
letters (thus, OCEAN, bay, Lake), and those of the land divisions in UPRIGHT 
(thus, DISTEICT, capitai., Town, Mountain). The most populous and important 
towns are distinguished from the others by more prominent letters (thus, Large 
City). 

% A thorough Review is given in the last part of the book. 



72 1 




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